8. Metonymy and its types

Such lexical SD as metonymy and irony belong to the first group of LSD based on the interaction of lexical meanings. Metonymy (Gk. metonymia 'changing of name') is a trope in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing. One name is used instead of another. Unlike metaphor where the interaction b/w the meanings of different words is based on resemblance, metonymy reflects the actually existing relations. The following types of metonymy ore differentiated: 1) the abstract stands for the concrete : It was a representative gathering— science, politics, business. 2) the container is mentioned instead of the contents : He drank one more cup (of coffee). 3) the material instead of the thing made of it: He examined her bronzes and clays. 4) the maker for the thing made : He had several Picassos (paintings by P. Picasso.). He bought a Ford. 5) the instrument it put for the agent. His pen is rather sharp. The saxophone has the flu today. 6) a part is put for the whole (synecdoche): the crown(= king); a hand(=worker). Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects. Since the types of such relations are limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in many cases is trite, as to earn one's bread; to ton by the pen; to keep one's mouth shut; to read Shakespeare

9. Hyperbole and understatement

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential to the object. Hyperbole produces a more striking effect than a plain statement. I saw it ten times. A variant of hyperbole is understatement in which smallness is exaggerated: A woman of pocket size.

Hyperbole is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. When it is directed the opposite way, when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are hot overrated, but intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement. I haven't seen you for ages.

10. The substyle of diplomatic documents.

Each of the subdivisions of OD style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Terms and phrases like high contracting parties; to ratify an agreement; memorandum; pact; protectorate; extra-territorial status; plenipotentiary will immediately brand the utterance as diplomatic. The vocabulary is characterized not only by the use of special terminology but the choice of lofty (bookish) words and phrases: plausible (=possible); to inform (=to tell); to assist (=to help); to cooperate (=to work together). A feature common to all the style varieties – the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, for e.g., M.P. (Member of Parliament); Gvt. (government); H.M.S. (Her Majesty’s Steamship); $ (dollar); Ltd (Limited).

Another feature is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room for words with contextual meaning or for any kind of simultaneous realization of two meanings. Almost every official document has its own compositional design. Pacts and statutes, orders and minutes, codes and memoranda – all have more or less definite form. An official document usually consists of a preamble, main text body and a finalizing (concluding) part. The preamble is usually a statement at the beginning of the document explaining what it is about and stating the parties of the agreement, the most important words and phrases are often capitalized as well as the beginnings of the paragraphs in very long sentences listing the crucial issues. The main text body constitutes the central and most important part of the document. It consists of articles – individual parts of a document, usually numbered ones, which state the conditions on which the parties reach their agreement. The finalizing part comprises the signatures of the duly authorized people that have signed the document; the amount of copies of the document; the date (more often than not, stated by words, not by figures); the place.

The syntax is characterized by the frequent use of non-finite forms – Gerund, Participle, Infinitive (Considering that…), and complex structures with them, such as the Complex Object (We expect this to take place), Complex Subject (This is expected to take place), the Absolute Participial Construction (The conditions being violated, it appears necessary to state that…)

Main features of the style: 1) conventionality of expression; 2) absence of any emotiveness; 3) the encoded character of language; symbols (including abbreviations); 4) a general syntactical mode of combining several utterances into one sentence.