- •2.Two approaches to language study
- •3. The theoretical and practical value of english lexicology
- •4. The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
- •2 Characteristics of the word as the basic unit of a language
- •3 The notion of lexical system
- •4 The theory of oppositions
- •Chapter 3 lexicography
- •1. According to the scope of their word-list linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and restricted.
- •2. According to the information they provide all linguistic dictionaries fall into two groups: explanatory and specialized.
- •4. Dictionaries also fall into diachronic and synchronic with regard to time.
- •2 Problems of lexicography
- •1) The selection of lexical units for inclusion
- •2. Arrangement of Entries
- •3. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings
- •4. Definition of Meanings
- •5. Illustrative Examples
- •6. Choice of Adequate Equivalents
- •7. The structure of the dictionary
- •3 The development of english and american dictionary
- •Chapter 4
- •2. Borrowings
- •2.1 Structural elements of borrowings
- •2.2 Why are the words borrowed
- •2.3 The history of borrowings.
- •I. Latin Affixes
- •2.4. The influence of borrowings
- •3 Classifications of borrowings
- •Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect
- •Italian borrowings.
- •4. Etymological doublets
- •5. International words
- •2.2 Functional approach to Meaning
- •Operational or information- oriented definitions of meaning
- •3.1 Lexical meaning
- •3.2 Aspects of lexical meaning In the general framework of lexical meaning several aspects can be singled out. They are:
- •3.2.1 The Denotational aspect
- •3.2.2. The Connotational aspect
- •3.2.3. The pragmatic aspect
- •5. Causes, nature and results of semantic change
- •5.2.1 Specialization
- •5.2.2.Generalization
- •5.2.3 Metaphor
- •5.2.4. Metonymy
- •6.1. Polysemy and Context. Types of Context
- •7.Semantic classification of the english vocabulary
- •8. Synonyms
- •9. Antonyms
- •If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.G. The word «bright» has the antonyms «dim», «dull», «sad».
- •10 Homonyms
- •10. 1 Classifications of homonyms.
- •1. Morphemes. Classification of morphemes
- •2. Types of meaning in morphemes
- •3. Morphemic types of words
- •1) Monomorphic;
- •4. Types of word-segmentabiuty
- •5. Procedure of morphemic analysis
- •6. Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •7.Affixation
- •7.1 Suffixation.
- •7.2 Prefixation
- •2. Origin of prefixes:
- •8. Conversion
- •8. 1. Substantivization of adjectives
- •8.2. Diachronic approach to conversion
- •8.3. Basic criteria of semantic derivation in conversion
- •9.1 Composition
- •9.1 Ways of forming compound words.
- •9.1 Classifications of english compounds
- •10 Abbreviation
- •10.1Graphical abbreviations
- •10.2 Initial abbreviations
- •10.3 Abbreviations of words
- •1. Segment the following words into morphemes. Define (a) the semantic types and (b) the structural types of morphemes constituting the given words.
- •2 Translate the following words into Russian, taking into account the lexical meaning of the root and affixational morphemes.
- •3 Define the morphemes the differential meaning of which helps to distinguish between words in the given sets.
- •5. Analyze the following words according to their morphemic types. Define the subtypes of polymorphic words. Classify polyradical words into two group:
- •8. Write pairs of words (prefixed and non-prefixed); translate them paying attention to the meaning of the prefix and the meaning of the whole word.
- •2. Determine the original components of the following blends. Define which type (additive or restrictive) the blends belong to.
- •3. Define which words have been combined to form the following computer terms. Give their
- •4. According to their pronunciation classify the given acronyms into two groups:
- •7. A) Explain the formation of the following blends.
- •8. Give the words denoting sounds produced by the animals enumerated below.
- •2. Structure and classification of word-groups
- •3. Types of meaning of word-groups
- •4. Motivation in word-groups
- •5 Classification of phraseological units
- •5. 1 Ways of forming phraseological units
- •5.2 Semantic classification of phraseological units
- •5.3 Structural classification of phraseological units
- •5.4 Syntactical classification of phraseological units
- •6. How to Distinguish Phraseological Units from Free Word-Groups
- •7. Proverbs
- •Phraseology
- •1. What is the source of the following idioms? If in doubt consult your reference books.
- •2. Show that you understand the meaning of the following phraseological units by using each of them in a sentence.
- •3. Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into Russian.
- •4. Complete the following sentences, using the words from the list below. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.
- •5. State which of the expressions are phraseological units and which are free word combinations.
- •6. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the semantic principle.
- •7. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the structural principle. Translate the Phraseological units into Russian.
- •Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary
- •1. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
- •2. Special literary vocabulary
- •3. Special colloquial vocabulary
- •2. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
- •3. Special literary vocabulary a) Terms
- •B) Poetic and Highly Literary Words
- •C) Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words
- •D) Barbarisms and Foreignisms
- •E) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words)
- •4. Special colloquial vocabulary a) Slang
- •B) Jargonisms
- •C) Professionalisms
- •D) Dialectal words
- •E) Vulgar words or vulgarisms
- •F) Colloquial coinages (words and meanings)
- •Variants and dialects of the english language
- •Immediate Constituents Analysis
8.2. Diachronic approach to conversion
The causes that made conversion so widely spread are to be approached diachronically:
Nouns and verbs have become identical in form firstly as a result of the loss of endings. When endings had disappeared phonetic development resulted in the merging of sound forms for both elements of these pairs, e.g. carian (v), cam (n) > care (v, n); lufu (n), lufian (v) > love (n, v).
The similar phenomenon can be observed in words borrowed from the French language. In French these words were of the same root but belonged to different parts of speech. In the course of time they lost their affixes and became phonetically identical in the process of assimilation,
c.g. crier (v), cri (n) > cry (v, n); eschequier (v), eschec (n) > check (v, n).
Thus, from the diachronic point of view distinction should be made between homonymous word-pairs, which appeared as a result of the loss of inflections, and those formed by conversion.
The diachronic semantic analysis of a conversion pair reveals that in the course of time the semantic structure of the base may acquire a new meaning or several meanings under the influence of the meanings of the converted word. This semantic process is called reconversion,
c.g. smoke (n) — smoke (v). The noun smoke acquired in 1715 the meaning of’ the act of smoke coming out into a room instead of passing up the chimney' under the influence of the meaning of the verb smoke to emit smoke as the result of imperfect draught or improper burning', acquired by this verb in 1663.
8.3. Basic criteria of semantic derivation in conversion
There are different criteria of differentiating between the source and the derived word in a conversion pair.
1. The criterion of the non-correspondence between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem in one of the two words in a conversion pair.
In the pair father (n) —father (v), the noun is the name for a being. The lexical meaning of the root-morpheme corresponds to the part -of-speech meaning of the stem. The verb to father denotes a process; therefore the part-of-speech meaning of its stem does not correspond to the lexical meaning of the root which is of a substantive character. This distinction accounts for a complex character of the semantic structure of verbs of this type. Due to the fact that the
semantically simple is the source of the semantically complex, the verb to father can be considered the derived member in the conversion pair in question.
2. The synonymity criterion. This criterion is based on the comparison of a conversion pair with analogous synonymous word-pairs. For example, comparing the conversion pair chat (v) — chat n with the synonymous pair of words to converse — conversation, it becomes obvious that the noun chat is the derived member as the semantic relations in the case of to chat — chat are similar to those between to converse — conversation. The synonymity criterion is considerably restricted in its application, it may be applied only to deverbal substantives (v > n).
3. The criterion of derivational relations. In the word-cluster, for instance, hand (n) — hand (v) — handful — handy the derived words of the first degree of derivation' have suffixes added to the nominal base handful, handy. Thus, the noun hand is the center of the word-cluster.
This fact makes it possible to conclude that the verb to hand is the derived member in the conversion pair under analysis.
4. The criterion of semantic derivation. This criterion is based on semantic relations within conversion pairs. The existence of relations typical of denominal verbs within a conversion pair proves that the verb is the derived member, the existence of relations typical of deverbal substantives marks the noun as the derived member. For example, the semantic relations between crowd (n) — crowd (v) are perceived as those of’ an object and an action characteristic of the object'. This fact makes it possible to conclude that the verb crowd is the derived member.
5. The criterion of the frequency of occurrence. According to this criterion a lower frequency value testifies to the derived character of the word in question. For example, according to M.West's "A General Service List of English Words", the frequency value of the following
verb-noun conversion pair is estimated as follows: to answer (63 %) answer (35 %). Thus, the noun answer is the derived member.
6. The transformational criterion. The application of the transformational procedure may be illustrated by a change of a predicative syntagma into a nominal syntagma: Roy loves nature --
Roy's love of nature. This transformation is made by analogy with the transformation of The committee elected John into John's election by the committee in which the word election is a derived one. This makes it possible to conclude that the noun love is the derived member.
Failure to apply this transformational procedure proves that nouns cannot be regarded as derived from the corresponding verbal base, e-g She bosses the establishment —> Her boss of the establishment.