- •2.Two approaches to language study
- •3. The theoretical and practical value of english lexicology
- •4. The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
- •2 Characteristics of the word as the basic unit of a language
- •3 The notion of lexical system
- •4 The theory of oppositions
- •Chapter 3 lexicography
- •1. According to the scope of their word-list linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and restricted.
- •2. According to the information they provide all linguistic dictionaries fall into two groups: explanatory and specialized.
- •4. Dictionaries also fall into diachronic and synchronic with regard to time.
- •2 Problems of lexicography
- •1) The selection of lexical units for inclusion
- •2. Arrangement of Entries
- •3. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings
- •4. Definition of Meanings
- •5. Illustrative Examples
- •6. Choice of Adequate Equivalents
- •7. The structure of the dictionary
- •3 The development of english and american dictionary
- •Chapter 4
- •2. Borrowings
- •2.1 Structural elements of borrowings
- •2.2 Why are the words borrowed
- •2.3 The history of borrowings.
- •I. Latin Affixes
- •2.4. The influence of borrowings
- •3 Classifications of borrowings
- •Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect
- •Italian borrowings.
- •4. Etymological doublets
- •5. International words
- •2.2 Functional approach to Meaning
- •Operational or information- oriented definitions of meaning
- •3.1 Lexical meaning
- •3.2 Aspects of lexical meaning In the general framework of lexical meaning several aspects can be singled out. They are:
- •3.2.1 The Denotational aspect
- •3.2.2. The Connotational aspect
- •3.2.3. The pragmatic aspect
- •5. Causes, nature and results of semantic change
- •5.2.1 Specialization
- •5.2.2.Generalization
- •5.2.3 Metaphor
- •5.2.4. Metonymy
- •6.1. Polysemy and Context. Types of Context
- •7.Semantic classification of the english vocabulary
- •8. Synonyms
- •9. Antonyms
- •If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.G. The word «bright» has the antonyms «dim», «dull», «sad».
- •10 Homonyms
- •10. 1 Classifications of homonyms.
- •1. Morphemes. Classification of morphemes
- •2. Types of meaning in morphemes
- •3. Morphemic types of words
- •1) Monomorphic;
- •4. Types of word-segmentabiuty
- •5. Procedure of morphemic analysis
- •6. Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •7.Affixation
- •7.1 Suffixation.
- •7.2 Prefixation
- •2. Origin of prefixes:
- •8. Conversion
- •8. 1. Substantivization of adjectives
- •8.2. Diachronic approach to conversion
- •8.3. Basic criteria of semantic derivation in conversion
- •9.1 Composition
- •9.1 Ways of forming compound words.
- •9.1 Classifications of english compounds
- •10 Abbreviation
- •10.1Graphical abbreviations
- •10.2 Initial abbreviations
- •10.3 Abbreviations of words
- •1. Segment the following words into morphemes. Define (a) the semantic types and (b) the structural types of morphemes constituting the given words.
- •2 Translate the following words into Russian, taking into account the lexical meaning of the root and affixational morphemes.
- •3 Define the morphemes the differential meaning of which helps to distinguish between words in the given sets.
- •5. Analyze the following words according to their morphemic types. Define the subtypes of polymorphic words. Classify polyradical words into two group:
- •8. Write pairs of words (prefixed and non-prefixed); translate them paying attention to the meaning of the prefix and the meaning of the whole word.
- •2. Determine the original components of the following blends. Define which type (additive or restrictive) the blends belong to.
- •3. Define which words have been combined to form the following computer terms. Give their
- •4. According to their pronunciation classify the given acronyms into two groups:
- •7. A) Explain the formation of the following blends.
- •8. Give the words denoting sounds produced by the animals enumerated below.
- •2. Structure and classification of word-groups
- •3. Types of meaning of word-groups
- •4. Motivation in word-groups
- •5 Classification of phraseological units
- •5. 1 Ways of forming phraseological units
- •5.2 Semantic classification of phraseological units
- •5.3 Structural classification of phraseological units
- •5.4 Syntactical classification of phraseological units
- •6. How to Distinguish Phraseological Units from Free Word-Groups
- •7. Proverbs
- •Phraseology
- •1. What is the source of the following idioms? If in doubt consult your reference books.
- •2. Show that you understand the meaning of the following phraseological units by using each of them in a sentence.
- •3. Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into Russian.
- •4. Complete the following sentences, using the words from the list below. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.
- •5. State which of the expressions are phraseological units and which are free word combinations.
- •6. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the semantic principle.
- •7. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the structural principle. Translate the Phraseological units into Russian.
- •Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary
- •1. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
- •2. Special literary vocabulary
- •3. Special colloquial vocabulary
- •2. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary
- •3. Special literary vocabulary a) Terms
- •B) Poetic and Highly Literary Words
- •C) Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words
- •D) Barbarisms and Foreignisms
- •E) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words)
- •4. Special colloquial vocabulary a) Slang
- •B) Jargonisms
- •C) Professionalisms
- •D) Dialectal words
- •E) Vulgar words or vulgarisms
- •F) Colloquial coinages (words and meanings)
- •Variants and dialects of the english language
- •Immediate Constituents Analysis
2. Borrowings
The term borrowing is used in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from other languages and also the result of this process, the language material itself.
1 Borrowings can enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech. The oral borrowings took place in the early periods of history. In recent times written borrowings have gained importance. Oral borrowings are usually short and they undergo considerable changes during the act of adoption. Written borrowings preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound form, their assimilation is a long process.
2.Borrowings may be direct or indirect. Thus distinction should be made between the term source of borrowing and the term origin of borrowing. The 1st should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The 2nd refers to the language to which the word may be trace
e.g. the word paper - fr. Papier- lat papyr-gr papyrus has French as its source of borrowing and Greek as its origin.
Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characteristic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.
2.1 Structural elements of borrowings
There are certain structural features, which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language.
Pronunciation sound combinations, position of stress, letters j, x, z in initial position, combination of ph, WH, eue, (zebra, waltz, zero),sk
Spelling : psychology
Morphological structure datum data
Polysyllabic: gavernment, constutution
Lexical meanings: perestroika, hashish
We have already established that the initial (sk) usually indicates Scandinavian origin. We can also recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings. Here are some typical and frequent structural elements of Latin and French borrowings:
Latin affixes of nouns: the suffix (-ion): legion, opinion, etc.; the suffix (-tion): relation, temptation, etc.
Latin affixes of verbs: the suffix (-ate): appreciate, create, congratulate, etc.; the suffix (-ute): attribute, distribute, etc.; the remnant1 suffix (-ct): act, collect, conduct, etc.; the prefix (dis-): disable, disagree, etc.
Latin affixes of adjectives: the suffix (-able): detestable, curable, etc.; the suffix (-ate): accurate, graduate, etc.; the suffix (-ant): constant, important, etc.; the suffix (-ent): absent, evident, etc.; the suffix (-or): major, senior, etc.; the suffix (-al): final, maternal, etc.; the suffix (-ar): solar, familiar, etc.
French affixes of nouns:the suffix (-ance): endurance, hindrance, etc.; the suffix (-ence): consequence, patience, etc.; the suffix (-ment): appointment, development, etc.; the suffix (-age): courage, marriage, village, etc.; the suffix (-ess): actress, adventuress, etc.
French affixes of verbs: the prefix (en-): enable, enact, enslave, etc.
French affixes of adjectives: the suffix (-ous): curious, dangerous, etc.
It’s important to note that later formations derived from native roots borrowed Latin and French affixes (e.g. eatable, lovable).