7. The structure of the dictionary

When the selection of the dictionary entries, the contents and structure of the entries, their order of arrangement etc. are decided upon, the lexicographer is to settle upon this or that structure of the dictionary.

In spite of the great variety of linguistic dictionaries their composition has many features in common. Nearly all of them may be roughly divided into three unequal parts.

Apart from the dictionary proper, that make up the bulk of the wordbook, every reference book contains some separate sections which are to help the user in handling it — an Introduction and Guide to the use’ of the dictionary. This prefatory matter usually explains all the peculiarities of the word-book, it also contains a key to pronunciation, the list of abbreviations used and the like.

It is very important that the user of a dictionary should read this prefatory matter for this will enable him to know what is to be found in the word-book and what is not, will help him locate words quickly and easily, and derive the full amount of information the dictionary affords.

Appended to the dictionary proper there is some supplementary material valuable for language learners and language teachers. This material may be divided into one of linguistic nature, pertaining to vocabulary, its development and use, and the other pertaining to matters distinctly encyclopaedic. In explanatory dictionaries the appendixes of the first kind usually include addenda or/and various word-lists: geographical names, foreign words and expressions, forenames, etc., record new meanings of words already entered and words that have come into existence since the compilation of the word-book. The educational material may include a list of colleges and universities, special signs and symbols used in various branches of science, tables of weights and measures, etc.

In translation dictionaries supplementary material is in some respects different from that in explanatory dictionaries, e.g. the Russian-English dictionary referred to above does not only include a list of geographical names, standard abbreviations pertaining to the public, political, economic and industrial life, but also contains the rules of English and Russian pronunciation

3 The development of english and american dictionary

The evolution of the English dictionary is rooted in the general evolution of the English language. In this development the chief pressures were exerted by the steady increase in the word stock of English. Such an overall increase as this made the dictionary necessary. The pressure of vocabulary, however, has always been influenced and reinforced by intellectual climate of each successive period of the language.

The beginnings of dictionary history are neither national nor concerned with any of the national languages. They are concerned with the international language of medieval European civilization: Latin. Our first wordbooks are lists of relatively difficult Latin terms, usually those of a Scriptural nature, accompanied by glosses in easier or more familiar Latin. Very early in the Anglo-Saxon period, however, we find glosses containing native English (i. e.,Anglo-Saxon) equivalents for the hard Latin terms, and it may be that two of these — the Leiden and Erfurt Glosses —represent the earliest written English we possess. Such glosses, whether Latin-Latin or Latin-English, continued to be compiled during the entire Anglo-Saxon and most of the Middle-English period.

The next stage of development, attained in England around 1400, was the collection of the isolated glosses into what is called a glossarium, a kind of very early Latin-English dictionary. As it chances, our first example of the glossarium, the so-called Medulla Grammatica written in East Anglia around 1400, has never been printed; but two later redactions were among our earliest printed books'

The first onset of’ the Renaissance worked against rather than in favor of the native English dictionary. The breakdown of Latin as an international language and the rapid development of international trade led to an immediate demand for foreign-language dictionaries. The first of such works was rapidly followed by the best known of all such works, Florio's Italian-English dictionary (1599). Meanwhile, the first great classical dictionary, Cooper's Thesaurus (1565), had already appeared. It should be noted, in passing, that none of these various wordbooks of the 16th century actually used the title dictionary or dictionarium. They were called by various kinds of fanciful or half-fanciful names, of which hortus 'garden' and thesaurus 'hoard' were particularly popular. During the, late 16th century, the full tide of the Renaissance had been Sweeping a curious flotsam and Jetsam into English literary harbors. Constant reading of Greek and’ Latin bred a race of Holofernes pedants who preferred the Latin or Greek term to the English term. Their principle in writing was to use Latino-Greek polysyllables in Latino-English syntax. Their strange vocabulary studded with-what some critics call 'inkhorn' terms — eventually affected English so powerfully that no non-Latinate Englishman could ever hope to read many works in his own language unless he was provided with explanations of elements unfamiliar to him. The Dictionary of Hard Words the real predecessor of the modern dictionary, was developed to provide precisely such explanations.

It is significant that the first English word book to use the name dictionary, Cokeram's The English ''Dictionary (1623), is subtitled An Interpreter-of Hard Words

If the 16^th was the century of the foreign-language dictionary, the 17th was the century of the dictionary of hard words. Between 1708 and 1721, hard-word dictionaries began to be replaced by word books giving ever-increasing- attention to literary usage. The first wordbook to embody the ideals of the age was Nathaniel Bailey's Universal. Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, originally published in 1721.This, one of the most revolutionary dictionaries ever to appear, was the first to pay proper attention to current usage, the first to feature etymology, the first to ‘give aid in syllabification, the first to give illustrative quotations. (chiefly from proverbs), the first to' include illustrations and the first to indicate pronunciation. An interleaved copy of the 1731 folio edition was the basis of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of 1755; through Johnson, it influenced ail subsequent lexicographical practice. The position of dictionary pioneer, commonly granted to Johnson or to Noah Webster, belongs in reality to one of the few geniuses lexicography ever produced: Nathaniel Bailey.

Johnson's Dictionary (1.755) enormously extends the techniques developed by Bailey. Johnson was able to revise Bailey’s crude etymologies, to make a systematic use of illustrative quotations, to fix the spelling of many disputed words, to develop a really discriminating system' of definition, and to exhibit the' vocabulary of English much more fully than had ever been attempted before, It (his two-volume work — Ed.) dominated English letters for a full century after its appearance and, after various revisions, continued in common use until 1900. As late as '90's, most Englishmen used the •word dictionary as a mere» synonym for Johnson's Dictionary; in 1880 a Bill was actually thrown out of Parliament because a word in it was not in "the Dictionary". One of the tasks taken upon himself by Johnson was to remove "improprieties and absurdities" from the language.

The dictionaries of the second half, of the 18thcentury extended this notion particularly to the field of pronunciation. Various pronunciation experts edited a series of pronunciation dictionaries. Of these, the 'most important are Thomas Sheridan's General Dictionary of the English Language (1780), and John Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (1791).

If the-chief contributions of the 18th century to dictionary making were (1) authoritative recording of literary vocabulary and (2) accurate recording of pronunciation, those of the 19th were unmistakably (1) the recording of word history through dated quotations and (2) the development on encyclopedic word books. Already in 1755, Samuel Johnson had hinted in his preface that the sense of a word 'may easily be collected entire from the examples'. During the first twenty-five years of the century, the researches of R. K. Rask, J. L. C. Grimm, and F. Bopp clearly defined the historical principle in linguistic. It was only a question of time, therefore, before someone combined Johnson's perception with the findings of the new science of historical linguistics. That person was Charles Richardson, who, in his New Dictionary of the English Language' (1836), produced a dictionary completely lacking definitions but one in which both the senses and the historical evolution of the senses were accurately indicated by dated defining quotations. Richardson's work leads directly to the great New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, first organized in 1858, begun under Sir James Murray in 1888, and completed under Sir William Craigie in 1928. With its supplement (1933), the New English Dictionary or Oxford English Dictionary (N. E. D. or 0. E. D.) covers the vocabulary of English with a completeness of historical evidence and a discrimination of senses unparalleled in linguistic history. Since the publication of the 0. E.D.. the only important British dictionary has been Henry Cecil Wyld's Universal Dictionary of English Language(1932), a work of somewhat restricted vocabulary coverage but one which, may well point the way to the dictionary of the future. Wyld has discarded the older logical definitions for definitions of a more functional nature; his examples delve deeply into idiom; his etymologies' are of a completeness and modernity unparalleled in any medium-sized wordbook.

The modern American dictionary is typically' a single compact volume published at a relatively modest price containing: (1) definitive American spellings, (2) pronunciation indicated by diacritical markings, (3) strictly limited etymologies, (4) numbered senses, (5) some illustrations (6) selective treatment of synonyms and antonyms, (7) encyclopedic inclusion of scientific, technological, geographical, and biographical items.

The first American dictionaries were unpretentious little schoolbooks based Chiefly on Johnson's Dictionary of 1755 by way of various English abridgments of that work. The most famous work of this class, Noah, Webster's, Compendious Dictionary of the English Language (1806) was an enlargement of Entick’s Spelling Dictionary (London, 1764), distinguished from its predecessors chiefly by a few encyclopedic supplements and emphasis upon its (supposed) Americanism: The book was never popular and contributed little either to Webster's own reputation or to the development of the American dictionary in general.

The first important date in American lexicography is 1828. The work that makes it important is Noah Webster's An. American Dictionary of the English Language in two volumes. Webster's book has many deficiencies — etymologies quite untouched by the linguistic science of the time, a rudimentary pronunciation system actually inferior to that used by Walker in 1791, etc. — but in its insistence upon American spellings, in definitions keyed to the American scene, and in its illustrative quotations from- the Founding Fathers of the Republic, it provided the country with the first native dictionary comparable in scope with. that of Dr. Johnson; Probably its greatest contribution to succeeding American dictionaries was the style of definition writing — writing of a clarity and pithiness never approached before, its day.

The first American lexicographer to hit upon the particular pattern that distinguishes the American dictionary was Webster's lifelong rival, Joseph E. Worcester. His Comprehensive Pronouncing, and Explanation Dictionary of the English Language (1830), actually a thoroughly revised abridgment of Webster's two-volume work of 1828, was characterized by the additions of new words,-a more conservative spelling, brief, well-phrased definitions, full indication of pronunciation by means of' diacritics, use ~of stress marks to divide syllables, and lists of synonyms Because it was compact and low priced, it immediately became popular — far more popular, in fact, than any of Webster's own dictionaries in his own lifetime.

In the field of unabridged dictionaries, the most important accretion is the Century Dictionary (1889), edited by the great American linguist, William Dwight Whitney. and issued in six volumes. At the moment, the most important advances in lexicography are taking place in the field of the abridged collegiate-type dictionaries. Meanwhile the scholarly dictionary has not been neglected. Once the New English Dictionary was published ,scholarly opinion realized the need to supplement it in the various periods of English and particularly in American English. The first of the proposed supplements, edited by Sir William Craige and: Professor J. R. Hulbert is the Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles, completed in 1944. This was followed by a Dictionary of Americanisms, edited by Mitford M. Mathews and published in 1951. A Middle English Dictionary, a Dictionary of Later Scottish are in preparation, and work on the American Dialect Dictionary of the American Dialect Society is now under way.

Modern trends in English lexicography are connected with the appearance and rapid development of such brunches of linguistics as corpus linguistics and computational linguistics. Corpus linguistics deals mainly with compiling various electronic corpora for conducting investigations in different linguistic fields such as phonetics, phonology, grammar, stylistics, graphology, discourse, lexicon and many others. Corpora are large and systematic enterprises: whole texts or whole sections of text are included, such as conversations, magazine articles, brochures, newspapers, lectures, sermons, broadcasts, chapters of novels, etc. A well-constructed general corpus enables investigators to make more objective and confident descriptions of usage of words, to make statements about frequency of usage in the language as a whole, as well as comparative statements about usage in different varieties, permits them to arrive at a total account of the linguistic features in any of the texts contained in the corpus; provides investigators with a source of hypotheses about the way the language works.

Computational linguistics is the branch of linguistics in which the techniques of computer science are applied to the analysis and synthesis of language and speech.

The use of language corpora and the application of modern computational techniques in various lexicographical researches and in dictionary-making in particular, have stipulated the appearance of corpus (or corpus-based) lexicography and computational lexicography.

Corpus-Based Lexicography

Corpora occupy a special place in the study of language. The importance of corpora for language researches is aligned to the importance of empirical data. Empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those, which are subjective, or based upon the individual’s own, internalised cognitive perception of language. A large and well-constructed corpus gives excellent information about frequency, distribution, and typicality of linguistic features — such as words, collocations, spellings, pronunciations, and grammatical constructions.

The recent development of corpus linguistics has given birth to corpus-based lexicography and a new corpus-based generation dictionaries. For example, the COBUILD English Dictionary n the Bank of English — the corpus of 20 million words in contempt" English developed at the Birmingham University. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English and the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English used the British National Corpus.

The British National Corpus is a very large (over 100 million words) corpus of modern English, both spoken and written. It designed to represent as wide range of modern British En possible. The written part (90%) includes, for example, extracts from regional and national newspapers, specialist periodicals and journals for all ages and interests, academic books and popular fiction, published and unpublished letters and memoranda, school and university essays, among many other kinds of text. Texts are selected for inclusion in the corpus according to three independent selection criteria: domain (75 % of texts from informative writings, e.g. from the fields of applied sciences or art, etc.; 25 % from imaginative writings — literary and creative works), time (mostly texts since 1975) and medium (60 % of written texts are books, 25 % — periodicals).

The spoken part (10 %) of the British National Corpus includes a large amount of unscripted informal conversation, recorded by volunteers selected from different age, region and social classes in a demographically balanced way, together with spoken language collected in all kinds of different contexts, ranging from formal business or government meetings to radio shows and phone-ins. The use of corpora in dictionary-making practices gives a compiler a lot of opportunities; among the most important ones is the opportunity:

1) to produce and revise dictionaries much more quickly than before, thus providing up-to-date information about language;

2) to give more complete and precise definitions since a larger number of natural examples are examined;

3) to keep on top of new words entering the language, or existing words changing their meanings due to the open-ended (constantly growing) monitor corpus;

4) to describe usages of particular words or phrases typical of particular varieties and genres as corpus data contains a rich amount of textual information — regional variety, author, date, part-of-speech tags, genre, etc.;

5) to organize easily examples extracted from corpora into more in meaningful groups for analysis and describe/present them laying special stress on their collocation. For example, by sorting the right-hand context of the word alphabetically so that it is possible to see all instances of a particular collocate together;

6)to treat phrases and collocations more systematically than was previously possible due to the ability to call up word-combinations rather words and due to the existence of mutual information tools which establish relationships between co-occurring words;

13. to register cultural connotations and underlying ideologies which a language has.

Computational lexicography deals with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of electronic (electronically readable/ machine readable) dictionaries. Electronic dictionaries fundamentally differ in form, content, and function from conventional word-books. Among the most significant differences are: 1) the use of multimedia means; 2) the navigable help indices in windows oriented software; 3) the use of sound, animation, audio and visual (pictures, videos) elements as well as interactive exercises and games; 4) the varied possibilities of search and access methods that allow the user to specify the output in a number of ways; 5) the access to and retrieval of information are no longer determined by the internal, traditionally alphabetical, organization of the dictionary, but a non-linear structure of the text; 6) the use of hyperlinks which allow easily and quickly to cross-refer to words within an entry or to other words connected with this entry.

In case of electronic dictionaries the demands on the user become greater as the emphasis is less on following a predetermined path through the dictionary structure and more on navigating relationships across and within entries via a choice of links. So before using an electronic dictionary it is necessary to acquire certain navigational and searching skills apart from the 'conventional dictionary skills'.

There are distinguished 2 main types of electronic dictionaries: on-line dictionaries and CD-ROM dictionaries. To use on-line dictionaries it is necessary to have access to the Internet. To install CD-ROM dictionaries on a computer it is necessary to ensure that a computer meets the minimum system requirements that are usually enumerated in the User Guide.

QUESTIONS

1.What is lexicography? 2. What is the term dictionary used to denote? 3 What are the main principles of classification of dictionaries? What types of dictionaries can be singled out according to these principles? 3 What do you know f bout encyclopaedic and linguistic dictionaries? 4 What is the difference between general and restricted dictionaries? 5 What information do explanatory and specialized dictionaries provide? 7. According to what principle are dictionaries divided into monolingual and bilingual? 8What dictionaries are called (a) diachronic and (b) synchronic? 9 What are the most important problems of lexicography? 10. What questions are necessary to consider while choosing lexical items for inclusion? 11. What are the two modes of presentation of entries? 12. What is the most complicated type of entry? 13. What are the three different ways in which the word meanings art be arranged? 14 In what ways may meanings of words be defined? 15. What can illustrative material clarify? What are the sources of illustrative examples? 16. What are modern trends in lexicography connected with? 17. What is corpus (or corpus-based) linguistics? 18. What is computational linguistics? 19. What does computational lexicography deal with?

20 Practical task.

1. What is the title of the dictionary?

2. Who is the publisher? Who is its editor? Where was it published and when?

3. What is the latest copyright date? (Look on the back of 2 title page.)

4. How many entries does the dictionary contain?

5. To what type of dictionaries does the wordbook under analysis belong?

6. Examine the table of contents. What is the title of the largest part or section of the dictionary?

7. On what page does the introductory article describing and explaining the dictionary begin?

8.Where does the complete key to pronunciation appear?

9.On what page does your dictionary list the abbreviations used in the dictionary? Are abbreviations, such as A.D., B.C., and TOEFL, explained in the body of your dictionary or in a separate section at the back?

10. Are guides to spelling, punctuation, and capitalization given? If so, list the page on which each begins. Are spelling variants listed in the dictionary?

11. Is there a section giving the meaning of commonly used signs and symbols? If so, give the page it begins on.

12. Does your dictionary provide derivations of words? If so, do they appear near the beginning or at the end of an entry? Are derivatives entered separately or are they entered under the words from which they are derived? How are compounds and phraseo­logical units listed?

15. Are the names of important people and places listed in the body of your dictionary or in a separate section?

16. Are the names of literary, mythological, and Biblical characters listed in the body of your dictionary or in a special section? To find out, look up Hamlet, Pandora, Mrs, Malaprop, Pygmalion, Hero and Leander.

17. What labels does the dictionary use to record variations in usage with time, place and social group?

18. Does the dictionary distinguish British and American vari­ants in spelling, pronunciation and meaning?