1. The Classification of Consonants According to the Active Organs of Speech and the Place Of Obstruction

According to the active organs of speech consonants are divided into the following groups:1. labial, 2.lingual, 3.glottal.

1. Labial Consonants. In pronouncing labial consonants the obstruction is formed by the lips. Labial consonants are divided into bilabial and labio-dental.

In articulating bilabial consonants the obstruction is formed by the two lips being brought together.

The English bilabial consonants are : /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/.

The Ukrainian bilabial consonants are: /П/, /Б/, /М/.

In articulating labio-dental consonants the obstruction is formed by the lower lip being pressed against the upper teeth.

The English labio-dental consonants are: /f/, /v/.

The Ukrainian labio-dental consonants are: /Ф/, /В/.

2. Lingual Consonants. In pronouncing lingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tongue. Lingual consonants are divided into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.

1. In articulating forelingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip or the blade of the tongue.

The English forelingual consonants are: / θ /, / ð /, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, / ʃ /, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /n/, /l/, /r/.

The Ukrainian forelingual consonants are: /Т/, /Т׳/, /Д /, /Д׳/, /Н/, /Н׳/, /С/, /С׳/, /З/, /З׳/, /Л/, /Л׳/, /Ц/, /Ц׳/, /Ш/, /Ш׳/, /Ж /, /Ж ׳/, /Ч/, /ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /P/, /P׳/.

According to the passive organ of speech, that is, to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants are subdivided into dental and alveolar.

In articulating forelingual dental consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip of the tongue and the teeth. The English dental consonants are: / θ /, / ð /.

The Ukrainian dental consonants: /Т/, /Д/, /Н/, /С/, /З/, /Л/.

Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge.

The English alveolar consonants are : /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/.

The Ukrainian alveolar consonants are: /P/, /P׳/.

Besides alveolar proper consonants there are also palate-alveolar and post-alveolar consonants.

Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate.

The English palate-alveolar consonants are: /ʃ/, / ʒ /, /tʃ/, /dʒ /.

The Ukrainian palate-alveolar consonants are: /Ш/, /Ж/, /Ч/, /ДЖ/.

Post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back part of the teeth-ridge, as in the case of the English /r/.

2. Mediolingual consonants are articulated by the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, as in the case of the English consonants /j/ and the Ukrainian consonant //.

3. Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.

The English backlingual consonants are: /K /, /g/, /ŋ/.

The Ukrainian backlingual consonants are: /K/, /Г/, /X/.

3. Glottal consonants. Glottal consonants are articulated in the glottis, as in the case of the English /h/.

2. The Classification of Consonants According to the Manner of the Production of Noise and According to the Type of Obstruction

According to this principle consonants are divided into 1. occlusive; 2. constrictive; 3. Occlusive-constrictive consonants.

1. Occlusive Consonants. In articulating occlusive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction. Occlusive consonants are subdivided into plosives (or stops) and occlusive (or nasal) sonorants.

In pronouncing plosive consonants the articulating organs form a complete obstruction which is suddenly broken by the pressure of the air exhaled from the lungs and a kind of explosion, called plosion, is heard.

The English plosive consonants are: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/.

The Ukrainian plosive consonants are: /П/, /Б/, /Т/, /Д/, /К/, /Г/.

In articulating occlusive (nasal) sonorants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction. The air-passage through the mouth is blocked, the soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nasal cavity.

The English occlusive sonorants are: /m/, /n/, / ŋ /.

The Ukrainian occlusive sonorants are: /M/, /M׳/, /H/, /H׳/.

2. Constrictive Consonants. In articulating constrictive consonants the active organs of speech do not block the air-passage completely but form a narrowing of the air-passage. Constrictive consonants are divided into fricative consonants and constrictive sonorants.

In articulating fricative consonants the active organs of speech form a narrowing through which the air passes with audible friction.

The English fricative consonants are: /f/, /v/, / θ /, / ð /, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, / ʒ /, /h/.

The Ukrainian fricative consonants are: /С/, /З/, /Х/, /Г/, /Щ/, /Ж/, /Ф, /В/. In articulating constrictive sonorants the active organs of speech form an obstruction or a narrowing of the air-passage wide enough for the air to pass through without producing audible friction. Constrictive sonorants may be medial and lateral.

Medial sonorants are those in the production of which the sides of the tongue are raised and the air escapes along the central line of the tongue, as in the case of the English /w/, /r/, /j/, and the Ukrainian /i:/.

Lateral sonorants are those in the production of which the tip of the tongue is pressed against the teeth-ridge and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue, as in the case of the English /l/, and the Ukrainian /Л/, /Л׳/.

3. Occlusive-Constrictive Consonants. In articulating occlusive-constrictive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction at first and then they are slowly released forming a narrow air-passage. The air, blocked at first by the complete obstruction, then escapes producing audible friction. Occlusive-constrictive consonants are also called affricates.

The English occlusive-constrictive consonants (or affricatives) are: /tʃ/, /d ʒ /.

The Ukrainian affricatives are: /Ц/,/Ц׳/, /Ч/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/.