21. The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.

The sentence is a minimal text unit which may be used in communication to express a complete message. Sentence: simple (one-member/ two member (complete/Elliptical)) and composite (complex(complete/elliptical) compound).

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

STRUCTURAL TYPES TWO-MEMBER SENTENCES

The basic pattern of a simple sentence is one subject-predicate unit. There are several variations of this basic pattern, depending on the kind of verb (transitive/intransitive) occupying the predicate position:

a) unextended patterns:

The child laughed. It is snowing.

b) patterns extended by obligatory elements:

The child caught the ball.

Mary is kind. John lives in London. We proved him wrong.

If one of these extending elements is omitted the sentence is structurally incomplete.

c) patterns extended by optional elements:

The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a very kind nurse.

ONE-MEMBER SENTENCES

A one-member sentence contains only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate. There are nominal and verbal one-member sentences:

a) nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun or adjective. They state the existence of things. They are typical of descriptions.

Silence. Summer. Midnight, (unextended)

English spring flowers! (extended)

b) verbal one-member sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. These sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality.

To think of that! Living at the mercy of a woman!

A one-member sentence is complete. No other element of it is implied or felt as missing or necessary.

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

An elliptical two-member sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the subject and the predicate positions are omitted. These words can be omitted because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, they do not carry any new relevant information and they can be readily supplied to complete the meaning of the sentence.

Some kinds of ellipsis are likely to be found only in casual speech.

Looks like rain.

See what I mean?

You sure?

Other kinds are typical of certain restricted uses of writing, for example notices and headlines.

Children not admitted. Strike Ends.

Many kinds of ellipsis, however, are common in both speech and writing as a means of reducing repetition or sharpening contrast.

22.Communicative types of sentences

According to their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences.

These divisions are usually applied to simple sentences. In a complex sentence the communicative type depends upon that of the principal clause. In a compound sentence coordinate clauses may belong to different communicative types.

DECLARATIVE SENTENCES

Declarative sentences, or statements, form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of conversation. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative:

I have just come from a business trip. I haven't seen my sister yet.

Grammatically, statements are characterized by the direct order of words.

A statement can be emphasized by the auxiliary verbs do, does, did put in front of the base form of the verb. I do feel sorry for Roger. Besides their main function of information carriers, statements may be used with the force of questions, commands and exclamations.

I wonder why he is so late. You mustn't talk back to your parents.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

The communicative function of the interrogative sentences consists in asking for information.

All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two main types:

— general questions /yes-no questions

— pronominal/ special/ wh-questions.

The two main types have a number of structural and communicative modifications.

GENERAL QUESTIONS

A general question opens with a verb operator (an auxiliary, modal or link verb) followed by the subject. It is characterized by the rising tone.

— Does it hurt much?

— Can you speak French?

— Ready? — elliptical

— Has he any idea what it's —have means own;

like? a slightly more formal use

— Did they have a good flight? — an informal style

DISJUNCTIVE (TAG) QUESTIONS

A tag question is a short yes-no question added to a statement. This is usually done when you expect the person you are addressing to agree with you or confirm your statement. Tags are most often used in spoken English.

— It is quite warm, isn't it? —positive statement+negative

tag which is always contracted

— You didn't know I was an —negative statement+positive

artist, did you? tag

— You fell on your back, —positive statement+positive

did you? tag, to show interest, surprise or anger

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS

An alternative question, or an either or question, implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. It opens with an operator and the suggestion of choice is expressed by the conjunction or. The yes-no answer is impossible. Words, word groups and clauses can all be linked in this way.

Do you like your coffee white or black? — Black, please.

Will you have your whisky, or do you want dinner straight away? — Whisky. Make it a large one.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS

Suggestive, or declarative, questions form a peculiar kind of yes-no questions. They keep the word order of statements but serve as questions owing to the rising tone. You're working late tonight?

Suggestive questions are used:

1) when we want to confirm something,

2) when we want to express surprise,

3) as leading questions to get exact information,

4) in echo-questions repeating the structure of the statement that came before.

He said you were a very good teacher. — He said that? The use of indefinite pronouns and adverbs has a positive orientation (unless negation is meant).

You have something to tell me? — Just a few words.

PRONOMINAL QUESTIONS

Pronominal questions, or special, or wh-questions, open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb the function of which is to get more detailed or exact information about a particular person, thing, place, reason, method, or amount. Question words may have various syntactic functions. The word order is characterized by inversion except for the cases when a wh--word is the subject of the question. The tone is usually falling.

— And then what happened?

— What am I going to do without you?

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

Both general and pronominal questions may serve as rhetorical questions. A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a question. Usually it is a positive question hiding a negative statement. No answer is expected. Can anyone say what truth is?

Rhetorical questions are used in emotionally coloured monological speech, especially in oratory, poetry and the writer's digressions.

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

Imperative sentences express commands. Besides commands proper imperative sentences may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, etc.

Formally commands are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood, absence of the subject (so structurally they are one-member), and the use of the auxiliary do in negative or emphatic sentences with the verb to be.

Don't be afraid of them.

—commands can be softened and made into requests; the rising tone

—an expression of irritation

and impatience, the falling tone

—the order is made more forceful

—the appeal is made more forceful

—an order or instruction

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically.

—Let's go outside. Let's do it together, shall we? —Let me take your coat. —Let the joy be universal.

—suggestions

—an offer to do something —an expression of wish; very formal English —negative constructions with let for the first person

—a third-person command in the negative

—a third-person command with the verb in Subjunctive I —a verbless command

—what refers to a noun; no inversion; the falling tone —how refers to an adjective or adverb.