- •1.The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.
- •2.Communicative types of sentences
- •4. Negation
- •3.Modality.Oblique moods in simple sentences.
- •6. Subjects “It” and “There”.
- •7.The noun. Semantic classification.
- •8. The category of number. Irregular plurals.
- •9. The category of number.Singular and plural invariable nouns.
- •10. Agreement of the predicate with the simple subject. Pronouns as subjects.
- •11. Agreement of the predicate with phrasal and homogeneous subjects.
- •12. The case of noun. The use of the genitive case.
- •13. The use of the indefinite and definite articles with countable nouns.
- •14. The use of articles with material nouns.
- •15. The use of articles with abstract nouns .
- •16. The use of articles with names of persons.
- •17. The use of articles with place names.
- •18. The use of articles with nouns in some syntactic function
- •19. Prepositive noun modifiers. Ways of expressing.
- •20. Postpositive noun modifiers. Ways of expression.
- •21. Verb complementation. Intransitive Verbs and Monotransitive
- •22. Verb Complementation. Complex-transitive and delexical
- •23. The predicate. Ditransitive and copular verbs.
- •24. The Object and Complement. Ways of expressing. Types of objects and complements.
- •25. Predicative complexes that function as objects only
- •26. Adverbials. Ways of expressing. Types and Semantic classes.
- •27. Adjective and adverb modifying
- •28. Predicative complexes that function as adverbials only
- •29. Predicative complexes which can be any part of the sentence
- •5) Adverbial modifier
- •30. The compound sentence. Semantic relations between coordinate clauses.
- •31. Complex sentences with nominal clauses.
- •32. Complex sentences with attributive clauses.
- •33.Oblique moods in nominal and appositive clauses.
- •34. Complex sentences with adverbial clauses
- •35. Oblique moods in adverbial clauses.
- •36. Subjunctive II
- •37. The conditional mood
- •38. The suppositional mood and subjunctive I
- •39. Word order. Emphasis. Inversion.
- •40. Making Texts. Cohesion. Discourse.
- •1. The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.
6. Subjects “It” and “There”.
The pronoun it when used may represent a living being or a thing (then it is a notional subject), or it may perform a purely grammatical function (then it is a formal subject).
The notional subject it has 2 meanings:
1. the personal it, which stands for a definite thing or an abstract idea. It is translated into Russian by means of personal pronouns он, она, оно. 2.The demonstrative it, which points out some person or thing expressed by a predicative or refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement. It is close, to this and is usually translated into Russian by это. ( It’s Jane)
The formal subject it does not represent a person or thing, but is used to complete the structure of the sentence grammatically. There are three kinds of the formal subject it: impersonal, introductory and emphatic.
1. The impersonal it is used in speaking about the weather (natural phenomena), about time, distance, measurements, and in sentences describing things in general. Sentences with the impersonal it are usually rendered in Russian by means of impersonal sentences. Ужасно холодно. Было почти два часа. 2. The formal subject it is introductory if it introduces the notional subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, an infinitive/gerundial phrase, a predicative complex; or a clause. The sentence thus contains two subjects: the formal (introductory) subject it and the notional subject, which follows the predicate. 3. The emphatic it is used in cleft sentences, which are a device for focusing attention on a particular piece of information. The structure it is/was ... that ... can be used to emphasize any part of the sentence except the predicate. When the subject is emphasized, who (referring to a person) is possible instead of that. Jane bought dinner at the Red Lion yesterday. It was Jane who/that bought dinner at the Red Lion yesterday (I didn't buy it).
EXISTENTIAL THERE (introductory)
Sentences with the existential there express the existence or coming into existence of a person or non-person denoted by the notional subject. Most typically, a sentence with the existential there has the following structure: There + be +indefinite NP (+place or time adverbial)
There tells us that someone or something that has not been ' mentioned before exists, happens, etc. If the person or thing has already been mentioned or thought of, there cannot be used. Cf. Is there anyone outside? — Yes, there's someone waiting. Syntactically, the existential there behaves like a grammatical subject: it is placed before the verb in declarative sentences and can be used in tag questions. There's still no water, is there?
The subject status of the existential there is also indicated by the strong tendency in conversation to use a singular verb regardless of the number of the notional subject. There's some children at the door, (informal)
A few other verbs can be used after there in a similar way to be. If you want to say that something seems to be the case1 or that something seems to have happened you can use there, with seem or appear followed by to be or to have been. There appears to have been a nasty accident. In formal English or literary writing the verbs exist, remain, arise, follow and come can be used after there. There remained the matter of Cranston. There followed a great flood of indignation in the newspapers. There comes a time when you have to make a choice.