- •1.The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.
- •2.Communicative types of sentences
- •4. Negation
- •3.Modality.Oblique moods in simple sentences.
- •6. Subjects “It” and “There”.
- •7.The noun. Semantic classification.
- •8. The category of number. Irregular plurals.
- •9. The category of number.Singular and plural invariable nouns.
- •10. Agreement of the predicate with the simple subject. Pronouns as subjects.
- •11. Agreement of the predicate with phrasal and homogeneous subjects.
- •12. The case of noun. The use of the genitive case.
- •13. The use of the indefinite and definite articles with countable nouns.
- •14. The use of articles with material nouns.
- •15. The use of articles with abstract nouns .
- •16. The use of articles with names of persons.
- •17. The use of articles with place names.
- •18. The use of articles with nouns in some syntactic function
- •19. Prepositive noun modifiers. Ways of expressing.
- •20. Postpositive noun modifiers. Ways of expression.
- •21. Verb complementation. Intransitive Verbs and Monotransitive
- •22. Verb Complementation. Complex-transitive and delexical
- •23. The predicate. Ditransitive and copular verbs.
- •24. The Object and Complement. Ways of expressing. Types of objects and complements.
- •25. Predicative complexes that function as objects only
- •26. Adverbials. Ways of expressing. Types and Semantic classes.
- •27. Adjective and adverb modifying
- •28. Predicative complexes that function as adverbials only
- •29. Predicative complexes which can be any part of the sentence
- •5) Adverbial modifier
- •30. The compound sentence. Semantic relations between coordinate clauses.
- •31. Complex sentences with nominal clauses.
- •32. Complex sentences with attributive clauses.
- •33.Oblique moods in nominal and appositive clauses.
- •34. Complex sentences with adverbial clauses
- •35. Oblique moods in adverbial clauses.
- •36. Subjunctive II
- •37. The conditional mood
- •38. The suppositional mood and subjunctive I
- •39. Word order. Emphasis. Inversion.
- •40. Making Texts. Cohesion. Discourse.
- •1. The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.
1.The sentence. The structural classification. The simple sentence.
The sentence is a minimal text unit which may be used in communication to express a complete message. Sentences are composed of clauses. The clause is the core unit of grammar. It consists of 2 parts: a subject and a predicate. Main clause is not dependent on any other part of a sentence. Sentence with one main clause is a simple sentence. A sentence with 2 or more main clauses is compound. Subordinate clauses are dependent on other clauses and cannot be sentences on their own. A sent. with a main and one or more subordinate clauses is complex. Sentence: simple (one-member/ two member (complete/Elliptical)) and composite (complex(complete/elliptical), compound).
STRUCTURAL TYPES
TWO-MEMBER SENTENCES The basic pattern of a simple sentence is one subject-predicate unit. There are several variations of this basic pattern, depending on the kind of verb (transitive/intransitive) occupying the predicate position:
a) unextended patterns: The child laughed. It is snowing.
b) patterns extended by obligatory elements: The child caught the ball.
c) patterns extended by optional elements: The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a very kind nurse.
ONE-MEMBER SENTENCES A one-member sentence contains only one principal part which is neither the subject nor the predicate. There are nominal and verbal one-member sentences:
a) nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun or adjective. They state the existence of things. They are typical of descriptions.
b) verbal one-member sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. These sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality.
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES An elliptical two-member sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the subject and the predicate positions are omitted. These words can be omitted because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, they do not carry any new relevant information and they can be readily supplied to complete the meaning of the sentence.
2.Communicative types of sentences
According to their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences. These divisions are usually applied to simple sentences. In a complex sentence the communicative type depends upon that of the principal clause. In a compound sentence coordinate clauses may belong to different communicative types.
1.DECLARATIVE SENTENCES Declarative sentences, or statements, form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of conversation. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative. Grammatically, statements are characterized by the direct order of words. A statement can be emphasized by the auxiliary verbs do, does, did put in front of the base form of the verb. I do feel sorry for Roger. Besides their main function of information carriers, statements may be used with the force of questions, commands and exclamations.
2.INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES The communicative function of the interrogative sentences consists in asking for information. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two main types:
— general questions /yes-no questions
— pronominal/ special/ wh-questions.
The two main types have a number of structural and communicative modifications.
GENERAL QUESTIONS A general question opens with a verb operator (an auxiliary, modal or link verb) followed by the subject. It is characterized by the rising tone. -Does it hurt much?
DISJUNCTIVE (TAG) QUESTIONS A tag question is a short yes-no question added to a statement. This is usually done when you expect the person you are addressing to agree with you or confirm your statement. Tags are most often used in spoken English.
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS An alternative question, or an either or question, implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. It opens with an operator and the suggestion of choice is expressed by the conjunction or. The yes-no answer is impossible. Words, word groups and clauses can all be linked in this way.
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS Suggestive, or declarative, questions form a peculiar kind of yes-no questions. They keep the word order of statements but serve as questions owing to the rising tone. PRONOMINAL QUESTIONS Pronominal questions, or special, or wh-questions, open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb the function of which is to get more detailed or exact information about a particular person, thing, place, reason, method, or amount. Question words may have various syntactic functions. The word order is characterized by inversion except for the cases when a wh--word is the subject of the question. The tone is usually falling. - And then what happened?
RHETORICAL QUESTIONS Both general and pronominal questions may serve as rhetorical questions. A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a question. Usually it is a positive question hiding a negative statement. No answer is expected. Can anyone say what truth is?
3.IMPERATIVE SENTENCES Imperative sentences express commands. Besides commands proper imperative sentences may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, etc.
Formally commands are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood, absence of the subject (so structurally they are one-member), and the use of the auxiliary do in negative or emphatic sentences with the verb to be.
4.EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically.