8. Factors that Contribute to Shifts in Meaning

There are 2 groups of causes of development of new meanings: 1extraling (historical) changes in nation`s social life, culture, technology lead to gaps appearing in the voc which have to be filled. There are such ways of providing new names as 1)Making new ws 2)borrowing foreign ones 3)applying some old w to a new object. E.g carriage: vehicle drawn by horses – with the appearance of railways – a railway car. 2Ling factors: the development of new meaning&change of meaning may be caused through the influence of oth ws (mostly syn) E.g starve – perish, when the verb to die had been borrowed from the Scandinavian these syns collided, as a result to starve acquired its meaning: to die/suffer from hunger.

9.Transference Based on Similarity (Metaphor).

A new meaning appears as a result of associating 2 objs due to their outward similarity (the neck of a bottle, mint, diamont drops, snowdrop) Often observed in idiomatic compounds. In transference based on resemblance an association may be built not only btw 2 physical objs, but also btw a concrete obj and an abstract concept. The main meaning of a noun branch – a limb or subdivision of a tree or bush – a special field of science or art. This type of transference is often applied in inform voc, esp in slang (onion-head, hoofs-feet)

10Transference Based on Contiguity (Metonymy).

The association is made upon subtle psychological links btw dif objs & phenomena. The 2 objs can be associated together because they often appear in common situations (f.e the OE adj glad meant bright, shining (applied to the sun, gold) later meaning joyful developed on the basis of the association of light with joy), or on the principle of cause & effect (the adj dull developed its meaning `not clear or bright` on the basis of the former meaning `deficient in eyesight`, & its meaning `not loud or distinct` on the basis of the older meaning `deficient in hearing`), of common function (arms of an armchair, leg of a bed), of some material & an obj which is made of it (jeans)/ meanings produced be the transference based on contiguity smtms originate from geogr or proper names (China – dishes made of porcelain). The name of a painter is frequently transferred onto 1 of his pictures (a Matisse – a painting by Matisse)

11Amelioration vs. Pejoration of Meaning.

The degradation of the mning is the process whereby, for 1 reason or another, a w falls into disrepute. Ws or rather their referents, once respectable become less respectable. (knave meant boy – scoundrel, villain meant farmservant – vile person, gossip – godparrent – one who talks scandal. The 2^nd mning developed negative evaluative connotation which was absent in the 1^st meaning. This process of transferrence can b observed in oth parts of speech: silly meant happy – foolish) Whereas the process known as elevation is opposite. Ws often rise from humble beginnings to positions of greater importance by having lost negative evaluative connotations.(fond meant foolish – loving, nice – foolish – fine, knight – manservant – noble man, lord, lady – master/mistress of the house – baronet/wife or daughter of baronet) Scholars using these terms don`t actually mean evaluation or degradation of mning itself, but of the referent onto which the w is transferred.

12. Specialization vs. Generalization of Meaning.

Smtimes, the process of thransference may result in a considerable change in the range of mning. Broadening (or generalization) of mning presupposes extension of the w range. Most names begin as specific names for things/ often, however, this precise denotation is quickly lost and the w`s mning is extended and generalized. F.e the verb arrive meant to come to shore, in ME it has developed the general meaning to come. The mning developed through transference based on contiguity, but the range of the 2nd mning is much broader. In OE w lady denoted the mistress of the house, later a new mning developed which was much narrower – a wife or daughter of a baronet, in ME w lady can be applied to any woman. In the process of narrowing (specialization) of mning a w with wide mning acquires a narrower, specialized sense inwhich it is applicable only to some of the objs it previously denoted, or a w of wide usage is restricted in its application and comes to be used in a special sense. (Deer meant any beast – a certain kind of beast, meat – any food – a certain food product)

13 Processes Responsible for Semantic Changes

The process of development of a new mning(or change of mning) is traditionally termed transferrence. In any case of sem change it`s not the mning but the w that is being transferred from 1 referent onto another. The result of such a transferrence is the appearance of a new mning. 2 types of transference are distinguishable depending on the 2 types of logical associations underlying the sem process: Metaphor and metonymy. In actuall fact, all cases of development or change of mning are based on some association. F.e w carriage meant horse-drawn vehicle, with the appearance of railway carriage meant part of a railway train. The new travelling conveyance was naturally associated with the old 1. Both these objs were related to the idea of travelling, the job of both was to carry passengers on a journey.

14 .What r Mning Rels?Reference vs. Sense Rel Sem rels r rel btw concepts or mnings.concept [school] should b distinguished from the w ‘school’. [Sch] is a kind of educational institution.The concept may, f.e, b expressed by the terms or expressions ‘school’, ‘schoolhouse’ & ‘place for teaching’. The rel btw‘school’ & ‘schhouse’ is a (syn) rel btw 2 ws, while the rel btw‘sch’ & ‘place for teaching’ is a rel btw a w & an expression or phrase. The rels btw ws are termed lexical rels. 'Sch' also means a group of people who share common outlook, a school of thought. This is a homonym rel: 2 senses share the same w or expression.Syns & homs r not rels btw concepts, but are about concepts expressed with identical or with different signs.Rels btw concepts, senses or mnings shouldnt b confused with rels btw the terms, ws, expressions or signs that r used to express the concepts. Sense rels hold btw ws in voc. The 2 most obvious sense rel r those of sameness & oppositeness, called synonymy & antonyny. Oth sense rels – hyponymy, meronymy – relate ws hierarchically showing how a w with a general mning includes the mning of oth ws with more specific mnings. F.e hostility has rel of synonymy with antagonism & enmity, & a rel of antonymy with friendliness. Tree is in a hierarchical rel with plant, a more gen term, & with an oak, more specific term.Sense vs. Reference:The reference of a w or phrase is the actual obj denoted by that w, without any further connotations. 'Sense'encompasses the full mning of a phrase, & so extends byond the merely actual.F.e, compare the name 'Bush' to the description 'President of the US'. The phrases have identical reference (both refer to the same person). However, they have a very different mning (or 'sense'), since we can imagine other possible presidents instead.