- •48. The relation of hyponymy serves to structure large parts of vocabulary. It is perhaps an all – pervasive structuring relation. It is almost evident in the taxonomies of natural phenomena.
- •49. The “part of” relation can similarly be represented by a hierarchy of
- •Old English Latin/French
- •2. The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language.
- •Loanwords from other sources
- •34 Sources of most recent loans
- •29Set expressions fall into two major groups: set expressions proper (собственно устойчивые сочетания) and phraseological units (фразеологические единицы).
- •30. Classification of phraseological units.
- •31. Set expressions have their own specific features, which enhance their
- •18. Shortening may be represented as significant subtraction, in which part of the original word or word group is taken away.
- •16. Compounds can also be classified according to the nature of the basis and the interconnection with other ways of word forming: compounds proper and derivational compounds.
- •17. Correlation between compound and free phrases.
- •Vice- “instead of, in place of” ex.: vice president
- •6.Word is made up of many components and they are usually described as types of meaning. Among the word’s various characteristics, meaning is certainly the most important.
29Set expressions fall into two major groups: set expressions proper (собственно устойчивые сочетания) and phraseological units (фразеологические единицы).
Set expressions proper lack in figurativeness and emotional expressiveness, they do not reflect speaker's attitude to the object of their utterance. Among a number of disputable types of set expressions proper there are two which are accepted by all scholars and studied most of all, they are nominal phrases (point of view, registered letter - заказное письмо, the Milky Way, the House of Commons) and verbal phrases (to have a look, to take advantage of, to take place). Nominal set expressions cannot be usually replaced by a single word with a different stem, they usually stand for terms. Verbal set expressions are inclined to have such equivalents - single verbs that often have the same stem as one in the noun of the corresponding verbal set expression: to have a look - to look, to have a walk - to walk. It's important to emphasize that there is some stylistic difference between verbal set expressions and their equivalents. The last ones tend to be bookish: to take part - to participate.
30. Classification of phraseological units.
Phraseological units are characterised by figurativeness, emotional and stylistic expressiveness, they not only represent an object or phenomenon but convey the speaker's attitude to them.
Classification of phraseological units and the place of phraseology in the vocabulary appear controversial issues of present-day linguistics. There are a lot of British and American dictionaries of word groups and idiomatic phrases. But the choice of entries is not clear-cut: some dictionaries include not only word combinations but also separate words with interesting etymology, motivation, expressiveness, as well as greetings, proverbs, quotations. A kind of grouping based on etymology and spheres of usage was presented in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. But even the authors admit that the grouping should not be regarded as classification.
A lot of Russian scholars have shown a great interest in the theoretical aspects of the problem. The most significant theory is by V.V. Vinogradov. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, i.e. with the possibility of changing the form or the order of the components, and of substituting the whole by a single word. According to the type of motivation V.V. Vinogradov suggests three types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.
Phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения) represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Ex.: to cut off with a shilling - лишить наследства, to talk through one's hat - говорить вздор, a fishy story - выдумка.
Phraseological unities (фразеологические единства) are more numerous and clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole . For ex. to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. "refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition", implying courage and integrity. Phraseological unities have the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can only be very limited. Some of them are easily translated and even international, e.g. to know the way the wind is blowing, as busy as a bee.
Phraseological combinations (фразеологические сочетания) are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: to meet a demand, requirement, necessity - удовлетворить требования, потребность, необходимость; to break a promises, an agreement, a rule - нарушить обещание, соглашение, правило. The mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymous.