27. Minor types of word formation

1) Reduplication - dum-dum (type of ballet), so-so, fifty-fifty.

2) Ablaut combinations - twin forms consisting of one basic morpheme (usually the second), sometimes a pseudo-morpheme which is repeated in the other constituent with a different vowel: chit-chat, dilly-dally, knick-knack, riff-raff, shilly-shally, zigzag, ding-dong, ping-pong, sing-song, tiptop, criss-cross, shilly-shally, pitter-patter, bibble-babble, clitter-clatter.

3) Rhyme combinations - twin forms consisting of two elements (most often pseudo-morphemes) which are joined to rhyme: boogie-woogie, flibberty-gibberty, harum-scarum, helter-skelter, hoity-toity, humdrum, hurry-scurry, hurdy-gardy, lovey-dovey, mumbo-jumbo, namby-pamby, titbit, willy-nilly (lat. Volens-nolense).

4) Sound imitation - reproduction of a sound associated with some object or creature. The majority of onomatopoeic words serve to name sounds or movements. They are very expressive and sometimes it’s difficult to tell a noun from an interjection.

5) Sound interchange is an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to an alteration in the phonemic composition of the root. (food – feed, speak – speech).

6) Back-formation (reversion) is a term borrowed from diachronic linguistics. It denotes the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure. The process is based on analogy and has only diachronic relevance.

28. Set expression vs compound

There are several criteria to make the difference seem obvious:

Graphic criterion - unlike set expressions (high school) compound words are usually written either as a single word or with a hyphen (waterproof, air-line). However, there are a lot of examples when a compound may have several graphic variants: loud speaker, loudspeaker, loud-speaker.

Phonetic criterion - unlike set phrases, most compounds are characterised by unity stress on the first word (‘blackboard). Although we know the types with double stress and level stress (‘arm-‘chair).

Another distinguishing criterion may be found in morphological integrity of compounds. Thus, all compound nouns form the plural with the suffix -s: forget-me-nots незабудки, good-for-nothings бездельники.

To sum up all said about the problem, we should point out that none of the criteria is absolute and the issue remains disputable.

29. Classification of set expressions

Set expressions fall into two major groups: set expressions proper and phraseological units.

Set expressions proper lack in figurativeness and emotional expressiveness, they do not reflect speaker's attitude to the object of their utterance. Two types of set expressions are nominal phrases (point of view, registered letter, the Milky Way, the House of Commons) and verbal phrases (to have a look, to take advantage of, to take place). Nominal set expressions cannot be usually replaced by a single word with a different stem. Verbal set expressions are inclined to have such equivalents - single verbs that often have the same stem as one in the noun of the corresponding verbal set expression: to have a look - to look, to have a walk - to walk. It's important to emphasize that there is some stylistic difference between verbal set expressions and their equivalents. The last ones tend to be bookish: to take part - to participate.