29. Classification of set expressions

29 & 30 - - - - - -

Set expressions fall into two major groups:

1.) set expressions proper (собственно устойчивые сочетания) (lack (недостаток) in figurativeness (образности) and emotional expressiveness, they do not reflect speaker's attitude to the object of their utterance (произнесением). Among a number of disputable (спорных) types of «set expressions proper» there are two, which are accepted by all scholars (ученых) and studied most of all, they are: nominal phrases (point of view, registered letter (заказное письмо), the Milky Way, the House of Commons (палата общин) (cannot be usually replaced by a single word with a different stem (основой), they usually stand for terms) and verbal phrases (to have a look, to take advantage of, to take place) (verbal set expressions are inclined (склоняются) to have such equivalents - single verbs that often have the same stem as one in the noun of the corresponding verbal set expression: to have a look - to look, to have a walk - to walk. It's important to emphasize (сделать ударение) that there is some stylistic difference between verbal set expressions and their equivalents. The last ones tend to be bookish (книжными): to take part - to participate);

2.) phraseological units (фразеологичес­кие единицы):

According to Vinogradov’s classification all phraseological units are divided into:

1.) phraseological fusions (сращения) (the meaning of components is completely absorbed (поглощено) by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties (св-ми) (to cut off with a shilling (лишить наследства), to talk through one's hat (говорить вздор), a fishy story – выдумка), оnce in a blue moon – very seldom);

2.) phraseological unities (единства) (more numerous and clearly motivated; In general they are the phrases where the meaning of the whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its components, but is based upon them and may be understood from the components.  Some of them are easily translated and even international (to know the way the wind is blowing, as busy as a bee, To fall into a rage – to get angry);

3.) phraseological combinations (сочетания) (are not only motivated, but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively (to meet a demand, requirement, necessity (удовлетворить требования, потребность, необходимость); to break a promises, an agreement, a rule (нарушить обещание, соглашение, правило); the mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions (замена) are not necessarily synonymous).

31. Features of set expressions

Set expressions have their own specific features: euphonic [ju:'fPnIk,] (благозвучные), imaginative (художественные) and connotative (ассоциативные) qualities. Many set expressions are distinctly (четко) rhythmical (ритмичны), contain alliteration, rhyme [raIm] (рифму), imagery ['ImIdZ(q)rI] (образность), contrast. All these qualities ensure (обеспечивают) the strongest possible contact between the elements, give them their peculiar (особое) muscular feel. These euphonic and connotative qualities prevent (предотвращают) substitution for another purely linguistic reason — any substitution would destroy the euphonic effect.

Rhyme is also characteristic of set expressions (by hook or by crook - by any method, right or wrong). This capacity of developing an undivided meaning is a feature that makes set expressions similar to words.

Semantic stylistic features, contracting set expressions into units of fixed context, are simile (сравнение), contrast, metaphor and synonymy (as like as two peas (как 2 капли воды) (simile), a pack of lies (metaphor), proud and haughty (гордые и надменные) (synonymy).

32. NON-CLASSICAL SOURCES OF LOANWORDS

English has borrowed a few words from West African languages, mostly via ['vaIq] (через) Portuguese and Spanish, e.g. banana and yam [jxm], which first appeared towards the end of the 16th century. Likewise (также), voodoo (колдовство), with its variant hoodoo, which came in through American English, is of African origin. Gorilla is apparently African in origin. More recent borrowings from this source include: chimpanzee, gnu, safari, zebra.

Most of the borrowings have been made in modern times. Polka came via French in the 19^th century from Czech. Mammoth was borrowed in the 18^th century directly from Russian. Other more recent borrowings from Russian have not become completely naturalized: Bolshevik, czar, glasnost, intelligentsia (ultimately (в конечном счете) from Latin), perestroika, tundra, vodka. From Hungarian, English has borrowed directly goulash (гуляш-) and paprika; while coach came via French from Hungarian kosci. Turkish words in English include: shish-kebab.

From Native American languages have come: moccasin, toboggan, tomahawk, skunk. And many American places have their origin in these languages, e.g. Chicago, Michigan, Saratoga.