Semasiology- branch of linguistics ,diachronically studies the change in meaning which words undergo,synchronically studies semantic structures typical of the language studied.

Main objects of semasiology studies –1.semantic development of words its causes and classifications 2.relevent distinctive features and types of lexical meaning 3.polysemy and semantic structure of words 4.semantic grouping and connections in vocabulary systems

Terms semasiology and semantics- According to Firth,the English word for the historical sudy of character of meanings was semasiology until in 1900 when Brail`s book was published uner title ``Semantic``

Pure semantics –refers to branch of symbolic or mathematical logic origenated by R.Carnap.It is part of semiotics,the study of signs and languages in general,including all sorts of codes including military or traffic signals.

Term semantic is possible to use for – 1.the branch of linguistic which specializes in the study of meaning 2.for expressive aspect in language 3.meaning of one word in all its aspects and nuances

Referential meaning of word-seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between the words and things or concepts the denote.

Functional meaning of word –studies the function of the word in speech ans is concerned with how the meaning works.

Triangle of reference –by Charles Kay Ogden and Ivor Armstrong Richards in 1923 in the book ``Meaning of meaning`` __Sound form__Concept__Referent__

Referential approach-some point that meaning of the linguistic sign is a concept underlying it and thus substitute meaning for concept.Other identify meaning with referent. Also say that meaning as interrelation of the sound-form,concept and referent but not as an objectively existing part of objective sign.With this approach to word-meaning the analysis will operate with subjective mental processes and will be not able to bring scientific order in semantic analysis

Ukrainian says that lexical-meaning of the word-is realization of the notions by means of definite language system.

Componental analysis – used for 1.detailed comparison of meaning whether within single language or between languages.2.provide more adequate basis for translation equivalent.3.for judging of the semantic compatibility as an important feature of style.4.for treating semantic transpositions of words.

Differential approach-meaning is constituded by certain amout of semes on the basis of which words are opposed to each other in lexical semantic units

Integral approach-lexical meaning includes both diferential and non-differential(integral)semantic components.There are different levels of adequacy of describing the meaning.

Reasons why we cannot draw distinct limit of meaning- 1.many objects of reality cannot be distinctly differentiated.2.The change of reality results in the change of its reflections in consciousness of human beings.3.knowladge of the notions is increasing.4.there are difference in cognition of various

Levels of analysis of the word- 1sememic(separate sense of a polysemantic word)2.semic (separate components of meaning)

Description of meaning- 1.the meaning is a system of components(semes)constituting a structure (sememe)2All components of meaning are arranged into one functional language unit-sememe. 3.the structure of meaning includes semantic components belonging both to the same and different types.4.In structure of meaning macrocomponents can be singles out(connotative,denotative and other..)5.macrocomponents are organized horizontally,microcomponents-vertically.6. there are semantic components belonging to nucleus and periphery.7. nucleus are constituted by essential,constant and frequent semantic components.8.the semes of periphery add to the nucleus and stipulate the semantic development of the word (polysemy).9. The border between the semes of nucleus and periphery is indistinct.10.The semes that constitute one meaning can be repeated in other meanings,the semes of nucleus in one meaning can be those of periphery in a different one.11.Meaning can differin some semes and coincide in others(synonyms,antonyms)

Macrocomponents(denotative meaning)- The notional content of the word is expressed by the denotative meaning(called also referential or extensional).To denote is to serve as linguistic expression for a notion or as a name for existing object reffered to by a word.Denotatum-notional nucleus of meaning abstracted from stylistic ,pragmatic,modal,emotional and other shades.

The emotional content of the word i.e. its capacity to evoke or directly express emotions is rendered by connotative component of meaning (also called emotive charge or intentional connotations) . Connotation (Lat. connotation from connoto - маю додаткове значення) is an emotional , evaluative or stylistic component of a linguistic unit of regular or occasional character. Within the connotains of a word we distinguish its capacity to evoke or express: a) emotion (daddy - father) ; b) evaluation ( clique - group); c) intensity (adore - love); d)stylistic colouring (slay - kill) etc. In a broad sense connotation is any component which adds to to the denotative meaning .

Macrocomponentsgrammatical meaning - Macrocomponents: grammatical meaning

Polysemy - a semantic universal inherent in the fundamental structure of language. Both in English and in Ukrainian polysemy is widespread but is more characteristic of English due to the predominance of root words. The greater the relative frequency of the word, the greater the number of elements that constitute its semantic structure, i.e. the more polysemantic it is.

• principle of diversityofmeaning - G.K.Zipf tried to find a mathematical formula for it: his calculations suggested that “different meanings of a word will tend to be equal to the square root of its relative frequency (with the possible exception of the few dozen most frequent words). Put in a different way : m = F^1/2

where m stands for the number of meanings and F for relative frequency.

E.g. the total number of meaning registered in NED for the first thousand of the most frequent English words is almost 25 000, i.e. the average number of meanings for each these most frequent words is 25.

synonym:synonyms present the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations;synonyms can therefore be defined in terms of linguistics as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable, at least in some contexts without anyconsiderable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use;

Examples:

English:pretty, attractive, good-looking;

Ukrainian:горіти, палати, палахкотіти, жевріти, тліти;

English:Think you can play Romeo? Romeo should smile, not grin, walk, not swagger, speak his line, not mumble them

History of discussing synonyms:

Greeks and Romans: mainly in the philosophical perspective, parallel names to the same notions, this proving that the word is just a label for notion;

16-17^th centuries: synonyms are considered primarily for stylistic purposes, as a means of decorating and enriching the text;

Since the 18^th century: sense differentiation of synonyms.

Criteriaforsynonymy.

according to traditional linguists – words of the same category, conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics;

semanticcriterion – may be defined as words with the same denotation, but differing in connotations. For example: moist – wet (denotation) – moderately or slightly (connotation);сирий – мокрий (denotation) – просякнутий вологою (connotation);

• interchangeability – words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alternation in denotational meaning. For example: He glanced at her (He looked at her briefly and turned away); He peered at her (He tried to see her better but something prevented: darkness, fog, weak eyesight).

• Typesofsynonyms - Types of synonyms.According to V. V. Vinogradov, there are three types of synonyms:

ideographicsynonyms – words conveying the same notion, but differing in shades of meaning.

For example: English: medicine, illness;Ukrainian: здобуток, завоювання

stylisticsynonyms – words, differing in stylistic characteristics.For example: English: father, parent, dad, daddy;Ukrainian: мама, матуся, мамочка;

absolutesynonyms – words, coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. Ukrainian: площа – майдан;

The sources of synonymy:simple native words are stylistically neutral, literary words are borrowed from French and learned words are of Greek-Latin origin.

For example: to ask – to question – to interrogate; to gather – to assemble – to collect;synonymic differentiation – synonyms influence each other semantically.

For example: wench – girl; knave – boy;words which came from dialects and regional variants (e.g. American English).For example: girl – lassie, charm – glamour;

• verbalsynonymicgroups often include a verb with a postpositive.

For example: to choose – to pick out, to enter – to come into;

• synonymy due to shortening.

For example: memorandum – memo, microphone – mike;

• Conversion and affixation.

For example: commandment – command, laughter – laugh.