3. European integration policy on the relation to Muslims: Expert analysis

Position of Muslims in the West European countries strongly differs depending on the concrete country. It, first of all, is caused by the principles of integration and domestic policy of the states in relation to Muslim immigrants, as well as history of formation of Muslim communities in the certain European countries. Actually, Muslims in the states of the European Union have three levels of identity:

1) Identity on the region and language (the Arab of Maghrib, Arab Mashrika, the Turk, the Iranian, the Pushtun etc.). In this case associations can happen on the basis of the general historical past, a community or similarity of languages;

2) Identity on a religious basis, on the basis of Islam. Here association on a certain all-Muslim basis is possible as grouping of representatives of any direction (the Sunnite, the Alawite, the Ismaili, etc.) or legal sense in Islam (hanbalit, malikit, shafiit, etc.), and;

3) Identity according to "passport" (the Algerian, the Lebanese, the Egyptian etc.). This type of identification is most widespread among Muslims in the states of Western Europe.

Being in a situation when "old" identity is not satisfied to needs of the European Muslims any more, and the offered new deviate them owing to the called factors, many Muslims of Europe often turn into outcasts, that is the people deprived of understanding of own accessory to any big ethnic (religious, political) group. In integration policy of the leading European countries in relation to immigrants it is possible to allocate three main models: 1) Model of separation of Muslims in society, that is the actual ignoring of their presence, the relation to emergence of Islam in the country as to a temporary phenomenon and restriction or prevention (in some cases) their participations in political life (Germany, Austria), isolation of Muslims within the country. 2) The model of assimilation at which ethnic and religious features of Muslims are also ignored, but thus society is interested, as soon as possible to turn Muslims into citizens of the country, to force them to acquire cultural and political European values (France). 3) Multiculturalism model from which proceed Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden. These countries try to include, with this or that share of success, culture of Muslims in social system of the country, giving them possibilities of participation in all spheres of public life, equal with representatives of other cultures. Each of the specified systems has both the advantages, and shortcomings. So, for example, the multiculturalism model (ethnic minorities) about which often speak as about optimum model and which is especially popular at the moment, well proves to be when the cultures connecting in a uniform public organism are rather close each other. The European Union can be an example of such rather successful integration. It is possible to claim that Islam and Muslim values contradict the West European values, than national European cultures each other much more strongly. Realizing it, some European states within the 1990th tried to reconsider living conditions of Muslims in the territory, however revision was reduced, mainly, to simple concessions to Muslim communities in private questions, thus the general strategy did not change, and the complex of problems became more increasing. In this regard, the actual integration of Muslims in the states of Western Europe by the beginning of the XXI century did not happen. Strategy of France Other strategy of immigration policy is shown by France, working, in general, in line with the second model - assimilation model. Immigration in France was perceived not as temporary, but as the constant phenomenon. Therefore the government tried to include the immigrant in public structures as soon as possible, but on the conditions which are laid down by a host. As the main tool the legislation which provides naturalization of the immigrant within 5 years (unlike Germany and Austria-10 of years, in Switzerland-12 of years), and also opportunity to have a dual citizenship usually acted (that is not present in Germany and Austria). The choice of such strategy, most likely, is defined by historical tradition of colonial French policy. France considered the North African colonies as part of France. Really a lot of things became to instill values of the French culture in the Muslim environment. Is indicative also that fact that, despite sometimes extremely cruel behavior of French in colonies, the mass repressions and executions repaired by the French authorities over the Muslims who rose against their dominion in many Arab Muslim countries remains the special relation to France. The French culture, literature, and sometimes and political system, are perceived in a number of the Arab countries, especially among ruling political elite, as a perfect ideal to which it is worth aspiring. Art. 23 and 44 of the Law on citizenship of France guaranteed nationality acquisition to the children of foreigners who were born in the territory of France if they lived without quitting the place in the country aged from 13 to 18 years. Citizens of France automatically were those children, at least one of which parents was born in the French territory. Nationality was gained also by those who married (married) citizens of France, in two years of joint life. The law of 1993 significantly toughened rules of acquisition of nationality, having taken into account such factors as a criminal record of children of immigrants, time of stay of their parents in the territory of France by the time of their birth (not less than 5 years), however the principle of acquisition of nationality by "the right of the territory" ("jus soli") did not change. The policy of assimilation to which the French government follows, does not mean at all that peculiar features of the people incorporated in the French nation will be completely suppressed. On the contrary, in private life ethnic or religious features of the individual can remain completely. The policy of assimilation never forbade "multiculturalism" in personal and social spheres, but it does not allow ethnic and religious diversity at the political level. As the famous French researcher notes

D. Shnapper, the "multiculturalism" defined as recognition of cultural diversity in political area contradicts both political tradition of France, and idea of the nation according to which nationality is opened for all who is ready to divide values of the French revolution, freedom, equality, secularism. Here it is not about "blood", not about religion, not about an ethnic origin. The Frenchman personifies himself with the political and legal order which was established in the territory of France. However the traditional policy of assimilation of foreigners on France in practice remained sometimes only the manifesto, idea which never up to the end was embodied in practice. Former main institutes by means of which assimilation - school was carried out, army, church, separate industries, gradually ceased to cope with the "assimilation" functions. It is caused partly and the unknown growth of number of foreigners in the territory of France in the second half of the XX century, both democratization of an education system, and emergence of alternative military service. The considerable role that assimilation in France becomes less and less effective is played also by distribution of radical Islamic ideas and currents. The inefficiency of immigration policy and policy of assimilation in France can be illustrated on concrete examples. The Muslim youth of the French suburbs - les beurs - suited acts of disobedience, something like an intifada, in the center of Paris during war in the Persian Gulf in 1991. Young Muslim girls declared peculiar "war" to the French secularism, appearing in a burqa in all public places ("war of a scarf" that did not occur in the 1980th years), in response to a ban of carrying Muslim female headdresses in September, 1993. It is interesting that some French also rose by protection of Muslims. For example, in response to threat to expel Muslim girls for carrying "scarf" from the higher school in Mant-la-Joli about 300 of their classmates staged a demonstration in their protection under slogans: "Freedom, equality, brotherhood".At the same time presence not assimilated, not turned into French, Muslims irritates the French inhabitant to that the exit in the second round of presidential elections in 2002 of J.-M. Le Pen, the leader of the National front of France famous for the nationalist slogans became a graphic evidence more and more. Against quickly growing and badly controlled authorities of a Muslim community " slogans France for French" get a response from the French voter. Anyway, the French policy of assimilation working successfully in XIX and in the first half of the XX century ceased to carry out the functions to the middle of the 90th years of the XX century. Strategy of Germany Though some researchers build contacts of Germans with the Arab-Muslim world by times of Charles the Great and the Caliph Harun are Rasheed, i.e. by the beginning of the IX century, as the beginning of serious and large-scale contacts it is necessary to consider only the end of XIX - the beginning of the XX century, time of "cooperation" of Germany with the Ottoman Empire. Despite abundance of military-political and economic relations of Germany with the world of Islam in the first half of the XX century, nevertheless such settled and strong communications with the Muslim world as at France or England, in Germany by the beginning of active immigration of Muslims to the country was not. Therefore the choice of strategy of separation of alien Muslim "guest workers" can be explained not only the German nationalism, but also simple ignorance by the German inhabitant of realities of the Muslim world, absence of strong historical interrelations. From the very beginning, i.e. from the moment of signing of the contract on hiring of labor with Turkey in 1961, Muslim immigration in Germany was perceived as import of labor, but not as immigration. By 1973 the number of the Turks living in the Western Germany made about 750 thousand people. The Muslims who drove in Germany on employment did not hurry to come back, but also their German employers were interested in continuing cooperation with old immigrants, but not to attract new which anew should be trained professions. Short-term stay of Muslim workers was unprofitable and for Germany. In November, 1973 the law which stopped employment of workers in the states which are not entering into the EU was adopted. Only that Muslim immigrant who lived in Germany not less than 15 years could count on acquisition of nationality at that moment and did not receive doles or other social help. Now this term is reduced till 8 years. Besides, for acquisition of the German nationality it is necessary to provide independently itself and the family, not to have cases of attraction to judicial responsibility and sufficiently to know German. The children who were born in the territory of Germany find the German nationality only if their parents’ citizens of Germany. However the Muslims living in Germany which vast majority was made by young men had very few chances to marry the ethnic German. Therefore they brought wives from Turkey, transported to Germany and children. The German government made a number of new attempts to reduce number of immigrants: in 1981 it was forbidden to bring with itself children 16 years are more senior. In 1983. The Bundestag adopted the law on stimulation of return of immigrants. According to this law to all immigrants who left Germany from 1983 to 1984 inclusive, the allowance of 10 500 DM was paid. However this sum was only immigrant contributions to a pension fund during their work in Germany. This measure promoted that about 250 thousand foreigners, mainly the Turk, left the country in the specified time. But already from the middle of the 1970th - the beginning of the 1980th years the new wave of immigrants - refugees and looking for a political asylum - overflowed Germany. Especially it increased after revolution in Iran and the beginnings of civil war in Afghanistan. The political asylum, according to Art. 16 of the constitution of Germany, was provided as well to Kurds - natives of Turkey and Iraq. With the purpose to lower a flow of refugees and political emigrants in 1993 the amendment to Art. 16 in the form of the Art. 16a was adopted. According to this amendment, foreign citizens from those countries where the Convention on protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms where there are no political prosecutions is observed, the political asylum will not be granted. Turkey also was carried to these countries in the special federal law. Thus, if the citizen of Iran, Afghanistan and other country in which the government of Germany recognizes existence of political and ideological prosecution from the state, tries to drive on the territory of Germany from Turkey or any of countries of Eastern Europe (except the countries of the former Yugoslavia), action of the Art. 16a on it extends, and to it can be refused granting a shelter. It is possible to claim that the measures taken by the German government significantly reduced a flow of Muslim immigrants by the end of the 1990th years. However growth of number of the Muslims living in Germany happens and thanks to high birth rate. The old German concept according to which immigrants were perceived as a temporary phenomenon and "Aussiedler", i.e. "immigrants" or, were called more precisely, "evicted persons", but not "Einwanderer" - "immigrants", continues to dominate and now. German researchers call such attitude towards immigrants inadmissible and urge to reconsider the principles of immigration policy. Muslims form peculiar "ghetto" which until quite recently practically did not participate in public life in any way in the territory of Germany. The similar situation is influenced, on the one hand, by features of the German legislation - complexity of obtaining nationality, nationality transfer "by birth" ("jus sanguineous"). In Germany the concept of the nation as systems of ethnic relationship and the general origin strongly became stronger. On the other hand, some researchers in this regard claim that in Germany in general there is no uniform concept of immigration policy, and call for creation in the territory of Germany of ethnic heterogeneity, heterogeneity, i.e. for the new concept of the nation, the nation created on the basis of the stiffened new multiethnic heterogeneity. The German researcher F.Khekmann turns attention that such heterogeneity is not achievable exclusively political means, and has to be under construction and at the social, household level. In the last two-three years in Germany quite rough discussion concerning immigrants and immigration policy in connection with adoption of the new immigration law was developed. The law was adopted by the Bundestag and approved by the Bundesrat in the spring of 2002. In June of the same year the president of Germany And. Pay signed it, and the law had to come into force since January 1, 2003. However the Constitutional court of Germany took into account arguments of conservative opposition - the CDU party claiming that new rules were accepted by parliament illegally, with violation of a voting procedure in the Bundesrat, and in December, 2002 blocked the new law on immigration. Thus, the law remained not valid and is sent back for revision. The new law significantly facilitates entry into the country of skilled workers, but limits inflow of unqualified labor. One of features of the law is also the requirement to the immigrants seeking to get to Germany, to know at the sufficient level German. However complexity of solution of problems is covered, in our opinion, not only in improvement of the legislation and not only in a strategy choice though they, perhaps, and stand on the forefront. Difficulties sometimes arise and at the psychological level: it is difficult to Germans to refuse habitual monoethnicity of the state and to recognize as Germans of natives of others, especially the Muslim countries. On January 19, 2002 on one of the leading German TV channels - "Phoenix" who reflects the point of view of the government, - within the Langlaufer Gesprache program discussion under the name "The uniform world or war of cultures took place?". The leading German politicians and scientists took part in it. Maria Bomer, the representative of CDU party, spoke, in particular, that the knowledge of language for what it is planned to expand and make obligatory for the practicing of delivery by immigrants of examination in German has to become the main factor of integration. B. Tibi, professor of the Gottingen university, immediately reacted, having declared that at least two terrorists who made attacks to the USA on September 11 as it is established constantly lived in Hamburg and perfectly knew German. He added: "The German society is very tolerant, I do not know any country in Europe where it would be allowed to immigrants so much, how many in Germany. But Germans do not give to immigrants of identity: even that visitor who obtained the German citizenship long ago, remains the foreigner. About me write in newspapers: "the Syrian professor Tibi". I ask you, whether long ago Gottingen is in Syria? If I in a similar situation (when I would have the American passport) would be called the foreigner in the USA, I could file a lawsuit. After all I live in Germany constantly from 18 years, and now to me 57". Strategy of Great Britain Active immigration of Muslims to Great Britain began slightly earlier, than to other West European countries thanks to such historical reasons as formation of independent India and Pakistan. Despite attempts to limit inflow of foreigners to the Law on immigration of 1962 (Immigration Act) and the termination of hiring of unskilled workers in 1964, growth of number of Muslims on the British Isles proceeded: the law did not extend on transportations to the British Isles of families, on the conclusion of marriages. The law on the racial relations (Race Relations Act) in 1976 forbade any discrimination on a racial and ethnic sign, having made it a criminal offense. Contacts with Muslims were carried out, first of all, through the organization of forums and conducting bilateral negotiations between Christian church and Muslim communities. It is possible to carry "Islam in the territory of arrival" to them (Islam in the Parish, 1974), "A cult and a prayer in Islam and Christianity" (Worship and Prayer in Islam and Christianity, 1975) and some other. Also other forums part in which took representatives of other religions, for example, "The world congress of religions" (The World Congress of Faiths, 1972) and "Society of an interreligious consent of the city of Leeds" (The Leeds Concord Inter-Faith Fellowship) were created. In March, 1967 for coordination of activity of all similar organizations also "the Interreligious community" (Inter-faith Network) was created. Actively the Muslim schools with teaching the Arabic language and the Koran created by this or that Muslim organization started arising. After F. Hekmann it is possible to call immigration policy of Great Britain "laissez-faire", i.e. policy of connivance, nonresistance. Encouraging and supporting strengthening of Muslim communities within the chosen strategy of multiculturalism and trying to observe the rights of ethnic and religious minorities which Muslims were considered and considered in Great Britain, the government sometimes badly imagined, with which Muslims it deals, what political forces they represent. The situation was complicated also by that most of the arrived Muslims was made by the natives of the Indian subcontinent who got used for more than hundred years to existence as the minority deprived of the political power. The Pakistani and Indian Muslims as the famous French researcher of Islam Zh. Kepel notes, automatically transferred the way of life in the East Indies to the British Isles, i.e. did not try to be integrated. The British government found it normal as in such situation the rights of ethnic minorities, an ethnic and religious originality were observed. But such situation could hardly promote acculturation of Muslims in Great Britain.