1. Integration and Assimilation of Muslims in France

Now in France the most numerous lives in Europe Muslim diasporas. By estimates of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, its number makes from 5 to 6 million people, or about 9-10% of the population of the country. And a third from them - half ethnic French. Sociologists give other figure: about 8 million people. Natives of Portugal, Italy, Spain, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Turkey treat seven main national groups of immigrants; they make about 70% of all immigrants. Nearly 2/5 from them arrived from the countries of North Africa. On the 1st place there are Algerians (800-900 thousand people), then there are Moroccans (600 thousand) and Tunisians (300-400 thousand people) 9. Immigration on the European continent was caused, mainly, the flow of poorly educated, economically vulnerable Muslims went the amplifying poverty in the countries of Maghreb, Africa to the south of Sahara and Asia, from where. The first wave of immigration to France came to the end in November, 1945, then the law on immigration (Ordnance of 19.10.1945) and the code about a nationality facilitating obtaining the French nationality by immigrants was adopted. Further (1973, 1984 and 1993) some changes were made to them. Second wave (1945-1974) was more mass, the share of natives of Africa and Asia increased. Inflow of Muslims after World War II amplified as a result of action of three major factors: It is 1) attraction of labor for a post-war economic recovery; 2) returns of freedom of movement to Algerians; 3) repatriations of the military personnel of auxiliary troops (80 thousand people) after the end of war in Algeria. For establishment of the social world in the country the French government supported construction of mosques, religious Muslim houses, inexpensive housing for immigrants. Islam of Muslim immigration of that period was characterized by restraint and did not demand special conditions for religious practice. It distinguished it from Islam of the subsequent generations enough integrated into the French society and which are not planning to return home or immigrate to other Muslim countries. The termination of labor immigration in 1974. After an economic crisis and sharp decline in production did not stop growth of Muslim community. The measures for reunion of families taken in 1976 promoted renewal of inflow of immigrants from Turkey and Africa. It led to growth of number of the children who were born already in France and obtained the French citizenship. The law on reunion of families which is criticized today actually meant legalization of resettlement of relatives of guest workers that is "family" immigration. Of course, without cheap labor France could not modernize the economy quickly. But at that time after transition from industrial model of economy to economic with prevalence of a services sector it needs inflow of an unqualified manpower much less. The wave of people from the countries of Maghrib considerably changed national structure of the French immigration after World War II. Till 1962 Algeria represented the territory of France. And under the law any child who was born there is her citizen provided that at least one of his parents was also born in France. The French Muslims share on three categories: "Khaki" (harks) - the Algerians serving in auxiliary troops and police in Algeria and compelled to leave the homeland because of repressions against them after obtaining independence by the country;

"ber" (bears) - Arabs on a youth slang to whom the considerable part of the French Muslims who arrived to France for work belongs; the French who accepted Islam (their of everything about 50 thousand people). Among newly converted Muslims there are quite famous names: the philosopher Roger Garaudy who was the member of the administrative board of the Communist Party, the academician Maurice Byukay, the author of the book "Koran and Modern Science". Still in the early seventies the French authorities took a number of measures for restriction of inflow of immigrants from North Africa. In 1974 the border of France was actually closed, and process of reunion of families turned into long bureaucratic procedure. In 1977 the scheme of repatriation of immigrants was developed, and in 1980 - the changes in the migratory legislation allowing deporting natives of the countries of Maghreb are made. As a result France was left by 4 thousand North African immigrants the majority from which lived here long ago and had children with the French nationality. After acceptance in 1986 of additional measures France was left by 17 thousand more people. In 1992 the next reform of the national legislation was carried out: obtaining the French nationality by children of immigrants was postponed until achievement of majority by them. In March, 1993 more rigid restrictions concerning inflow of immigrants were introduced. The essence briefly can be characterized them as "France does not want to be the country of immigrants any more". Despite the taken steps, in the 90th years of a position of Islam in France became stronger, supporters of religious extremism stirred up the activity. In 1995 there was a series of acts of terrorism in Paris. A. Juppe's government was compelled urgently to react and mobilize 40 thousand police officers and 4 thousand soldiers of regular army. The new immigration policy of the Prime Minister L. Jospin directed on simplification of obtaining the French nationality and residence permit, cancellation of "certificates of accommodation", simplification of procedure of reunion of families did not yield noticeable results and did not weaken social tension. France continues to take the leading place among the countries of OECD on inflow of immigrants: in 1994 it made 25 thousand people, in 2004 - more than 60 thousand chelovek12. Annually French citizenship is obtained by 145 thousand people. According to National institute of statistics and the economic researches INSEE the share of the immigrants who drove to France for family motives in 2003 made 77,6%13. The discrimination existing in France compels the Muslims who are living in poor suburbs of the large cities and not having permanent job to feel like people of "the second grade" in society, hostile in relation to them. It led to emergence of "the French Islam" which looks for the place in a national religious landscape and is a socialization element, mainly, of youth. Therefore the second and third generations of the Muslims born in France and considering themselves as French, on the one hand, are interested in the country of the origin, its culture and language a little, with another - become zealous adherents of Islam. The discontents of natives of Maghrib with the situation, growth of Islamic tendencies, especially among jobless youth, in many respects are a consequence of the immigration policy of the last twenty years which strengthened a social and economic inequality. Disorders in the dormitory areas of Paris and other large cities in October, 2005 became its result. Repeated though not in those scales, in October, 2006. The famous French researcher of Islam O. Rua noted that instigators of riots and perpetrators of the terrorist acts were descendants of Muslim immigrants in the second generation. They grew up in "adverse city zones" (ZUS) and suburbs of the large cities without normal welfare and economic infrastructure, had no vocational religious education and did not make professional career. In these areas lives nearly 2,7 million people. The cheap municipal housing (HLM), according to many experts, poses threat for society as compactly live "problem categories" of the population in it. The feeling of the marginality and return to Islam means for them more, than actually ethnic origin. "Demand" for Islam arose still in the late seventies - the beginning of the 80th years. During this period there was a reunion of families, there were Muslim diasporas. The younger generation which is partially assimilated in the European society and constantly meeting difficulties in upholding of the rights stepped on the public stage. Thirst for Islamic religious practice became expression of Muslim identity, compensation for inability to be integrated into the French society. In France there were first associations: The union of the Muslim organizations as a part of 15 associations from the big cities of France (1983), National federation of Muslims of France (1985) . For the last 20 years in the country more than 2000 Islamic associations, the religious and cultural centers were created. At this time also the initiative groups achieving from the French authorities of creation of the minimum conditions for departure by Muslims of a religious cult were created. According to the report of the Supreme council on integration "Islam in the Republic", made by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of France in November, 2000, in the country 1558 cult buildings (mosques and rooms for a prayer) operated by 1126 associations are registered. All this, including carrying scarf by Muslim girls in public places, branch of separate sites on cemeteries and so forth, is manifestation of requirements of Muslim immigrants to recognize Islam place in public life of the country. Gradually Islam becomes the second for distribution and to value religion in France. Actually there was "invasion" of Muslims into France that turned it into the most "Muslim" country of Europe. For the first time this term was used by the president Giscard d'Estaing. The appeal of the French Muslims to orthodox Islam reflects requirement to declare itself, fight against "capitalism and an imperialistic world order", for social and economic justice. Serious threat for France and Europe in general is represented also by support by the Muslim countries of the Diasporas. Transformation of Islam into the second religion of France was expressed not only in formation of "religious infrastructure", but also directed by a question of the status of Islam in traditionally secular state. The main task of policy of France for "internal" Islam consists in its integration in public and cultural life of the country, but within the existing democratic values and secular character of the state. The question of Islam institutionalization in France costs long ago. For the last two tens years the "left" and "right" governments of the country were called for rapprochement and dialogue between various Islamic movements and for creation of organizational structures of the French Islam as it, unlike other religions, has no central regulator. In 1994 council of Muslim representatives of France which unanimously adopted the charter was created. After a meeting of the president Ge. Chirac with four eminent persons of a Muslim community in January, 2000. the charter allowing Islam to be integrated into the French political legal framework was signed. However in practice it it appeared only the declaration on intentions which did not reflect a position of all Muslim associations of the country. The Federation of Muslim institute of the Great mosque of Paris created in 1926 and partially financed by Algerian Muslims treats the leading Muslim organizations of France. In 1985 a number of Muslim leaders left it and founded National federation of Muslims of France. The French intellectual Daniel Yusuf-Leklerk became the initiator, and the main posts were held by natives of Morocco. This very conservative movement is in opposition of the Parisian Mosque because of disagreements between Rabat and Algeria. It made as the first the requirement to provide the right for carrying a Muslim scarf of "hijab" at public schools. To the least under control French authorities, the most influential and polities is the Union of the Islamic organizations of France. His secretary general - Fuad Alyaui, heads - natives of Morocco and Tunisia. The union represents the French office of the Union of the Islamic organizations of Europe. UOIF unites more than 200 associations of mainly conservative Muslim views and is close to the Brother - Muslim organization though officially rejects this communication. The union enjoys financial support of religious funds of Gulf States. Activity of this the organization is opaque, and strategy - is dual as, on the one hand, she tries not to lose support of the Muslim population, with another - does not conflict to the French laws. "Islam in the Republic" contains in the mentioned report the analysis of various aspects of relationship of Muslim community and other France, namely: main directions of Islam, its national features ("Turkish", "North African", "African"), influential Muslim federations, charter of the French Muslim council. In it recommendations about improvement of policy of the state for Islam and integration of Muslims into the French society are also submitted. In 2003 the French Muslim council (CFSM) and its regional offices was created. CFSM united three leaders Muslim federations (Federation of Muslim institute of the Great mosque of Paris, FNMF, UOIF) and five "Big mosques". Its main objective consisted in advance of Islam on the way of integration into the socio cultural environment of the state. However essential disagreements between the main federations - members of council, and also excessive intervention of the authorities in its activity for the purpose of assistance to a "moderate" current in Islam, disturb effective work of this organization. The problem of relationship of the state and Muslim associations has two aspects: 1) compatibility of Moslem doctrine with democratic values of the country of residence and requirements imposed by the secular state, and 2) integration of the Muslim population in the French society. After long-term friction between the power and Muslim Diaspora defending a freedom of worship it was succeeded to achieve a certain balance which, unfortunately, is periodically broken. The disorders which began in France on October 27, 2005 made main a subject of immigration and distribution of Islam again. Four major factors are the cornerstone of Islamization of France: high growth rates of number of the French Muslims; their "alienation" from cultural and social and economic life of the French society; upholding of the religious traditions and values; the increasing impact of Islamists on not Muslims. Most of the Muslims living in France are not fundamentalists, and furthermore terrorists. According to some researches, only 5% of the French Muslims it is possible to carry to fundamentalists, from them - 3-5% (about 10 thousand people) can be considered potentially opasnymi16. Nevertheless, when in May, 2003 N. Sarkozy, still being the Minister of Internal Affairs, organized elections to the French Muslim council, 40% of votes in it received UOIF which head considers that the constitution of Muslims is a Koran and it is necessary to live under laws of Sharia. The French "republican" model of integration of immigrants means assimilation, but without cultural and ethnic features of various groups of the population. Its basic elements are: training at secular schools of children of all nationalities and religions; the obligatory knowledge of language of the country of residence that allows to join the French society and to be acquainted with national culture; and at the same time recognition of "the right of blood" and "the right of the earth" when granting nationality. However many immigrants consider idea of formation of the French identity unilateral and in something even compulsory. Creation in 1981" the priority educational zones" (ZEP) representing idea of fight against a social inequality did not change a situation. The French assimilatory model of integration was successful in the period of the first wave of immigration from Italy, Belgium, Spain. Natives of Portugal and Maghrib of that period were also integrated into the French society in the welfare and political plan, but not in the economic. Further assimilation of immigrant cultures of did not justify - the tendency to integration, association and interaction of cultures without their merge is observed. The state immigration policy of France is based on the principle of equality of all citizens irrespective of a nationality and the country of origin. Legally foreigners have the same rights, as the title nation; actually there is a discrimination against immigrants. Ethnic communities from the countries of Maghrib and Africa are a little presented in business and power structures of France. It is difficult for Muslim university graduates to find prestigious work to take the place corresponding to their education in social hierarchy. In comparison with indigenous French or natives of the European countries unemployment rate among the Muslim population is higher (20 - 25%, and for youth from 15 to 25 years - to 45%) 17. The inequality on ethnic grounds in the French society remains so far. At the same time improvement of an economic situation of the second and third generation of immigrants is noticeable; in their environment even there were representatives of middle class. The new generation is not content with an unqualified hard work and wants to have the same opportunities which are possessed by indigenous French. It considers that integration into the French society is improbable because of distinctions in the national traditions concerning a way of life, the status of the woman and family values in general. It, in their opinion, conducts to emergence of "the European racism" against radical economic transformations, crisis in the labor sphere, segregation to the fields of education, marginalization of low-skill labor and so forth. Economic factors play an important role in the solution of a "Muslim" problem. After all obtaining benefits from the French social and economic system was the main motive by which many Muslims who changed a residence were guided. Thus they do not wish to adapt for basic values of the French society. In July, 2007 N. Sarkozy issued the law which regulates inflow of immigrants, and also imposes a ban on some Muslim customs, such as polygamy, coercion to marriage, etc. More than 30% of the French Muslims were born in the territory of France and are her citizens, thus the number of the Muslims who obtained the French citizenship steadily grows. Especially natives of the countries of Maghrib who connect the future and the future of the children with this country seek to become citizens of France. On the contrary, Turks, Pakistanis, natives of the African Muslim countries (for example, Mali) cherish hope to return home and do not show a great interest to assimilation. Muslims of France differ from the brothers in faith in other EU countries in that thanks to its domestic and immigration policy process of their transformation in "French - on - to the passport" goes quickly enough. At the second generation of the French Muslims, i.e. those who was born in the French territory, the native language actually is French. So-called beurs, i.e. the North African Arabs who were born and grown by territories of France, represent subculture which has a little general or in general anything with Islam and Arab-Muslim culture. Their slang (verlau) - French, clothes - American, they listen to a rap and hip-hop and eat at the McDonald's restaurants, i.e. represent quite usual street youth city subculture of the western type. A certain control over Muslim traditions exists only in areas or quarters of compact accommodation of Muslims, especially it concerns women. At work, in offices, communicating outdoors, Muslims follow western, in this case French, to examples of behavior. However, as the French researcher Olivier Roi notes, such concepts as "belief", "rescue", eventually, are more important than the concepts "permitted" and "forbidden" for Muslims (halal and to choruses). In spite of the fact that in everyday life many installations of Islam are broken, Muslims continue to consider themselves as Muslims and the belief do not refuse. In the course of a growing almost all beurs start realizing themselves Muslims that allows to speak about a phenomenon "newly the born Muslims". Thus it is very important by what influence of Muslim theologians and theologians they will be influenced. To identify itself as the French practicing Islam they too cannot owing to the attitude towards them of surrounding French society. An important role in the course of self-identification of Muslims is played also by the idea of Europeans rooting in consciousness as about Christians while the European society is not Christian, but secularly, secular. In the territory of France about 3 thousand mosques and meeting-houses which most often unite ethnic communities (a mosque Algerian, Moroccan, etc.) at the moment work. Only eight of them are the big monumental buildings capable to accept more than one thousand believers. The majority of mosques represent not only houses of worship, in them settle down clinics, pools, bookstores. In the country over 2000 Islamic associations, the religious and cultural centers work, there is a wide network halal (permitted by Sharia) butcher shops, Muslim book-stores. In France also Muslim schools where besides general education subjects’ fundamentals of Muslim dogma are taught, the Koran, the Arabic language are open, a Muslim ban in food for pupils is observed. And 76% of Muslims of France would like to train. In France, nevertheless, some actions taken by Muslims were of great importance. In certain cases it was required to carry out strikes to force employers and managing directors to allow to use chapels. While in other countries of Western Europe the question of carrying a scarf on the head was not beyond discussion at the local level, in France it was lifted to the level of the state debate. In the French society that the woman carries in public places a scarf on the head, is often considered as confirmation of presence of Islam and Islamic identification that contradicts ideology of secularism as a basis of society. Since the end of the 70th years of the XX century some large Arab Muslim organizations, generally under the influence of strong leaders were created. Besides, by this time in the country, at least, 30 thousand indigenous French who accepted Islam, or children of such newly converted Muslims already were. They by definition were the practicing believers and combined commitment of Moslem doctrine with high social activity. In 1984 in Paris there was a society "Live on Islam in the West", and in 1985 the group of newly converted Muslim French "in peak" the Parisian mosque laid the foundation of one of the Muslim associations, largest in the country, - the National Federation of Muslims of France (NFMF). Daniel Yusuf-Leklerk - the French intellectual who became the convinced Muslim became the main initiator of its creation and the leader. Before the election on a post of the head of NFMF which united part of Islamic associations on the federal beginnings it headed the Taliban association ("Good things") which received from League of the Islamic world the "exclusive" right for assignment of category halal to the meat products made in France intended to the use in the Muslim countries. Unlike the immigrants who did not have the French nationality, "Muslim French" had more opportunities (in particular, by creation of electoral blocs) to force to reckon with their religious requirements. At the same time these years the French state made active attempts (generally through the Ministry of Internal Affairs) to adjust dialogue with a numerous Muslim community. However these attempts did not make special success not only owing to ethnic, cultural and ideological heterogeneity of the last, but also owing to absence at it even similarity of uniform structure. Any of the Muslim organizations of the country (including National federation of Muslims of France) had no and still has no opportunity to speak on behalf of all community, so, and to serve as the intermediary between it and the state. Meanwhile the main task of a state policy of France concerning "internal" Islam is its integration into public and cultural life of the country at the conditions which are not contradicting foundations of a republican system. In October, 1999 the Minister of Internal Affairs Jean-Pierre Chevenman suggested various Islamic associations to sign the document formulating the basic legal principles of creation of the relations between the state and Moslem doctrine which would be applicable to the organization of a cult of Muslims. Actually such document - the Charter of Muslim religion in France - was already prepared in the mid-nineties and was discussed by representatives of a Muslim community with the government of France, but then was not accepted. Despite delay of the certain heads considering this initiative "infantile" and contradicting spirit of the law on separation of church from the state almost all representatives of the Islamic organizations of France signed it on January 28, 2000. Only on December 20, 2002 at conference in Paris it was declared creation of the joint organization of Muslims of France under the name French Council on Moslem doctrine (CFCM). The Minister of Internal Affairs of the country Nicolas Sarkozy called it a historical milestone for French minds, until recently being in a condition of sharp delimitation. The board of the new organization included heads of three leading Muslim structures of the country - the Union of the Islamic organizations, National federation of Muslims of France and a mosque of Paris. The imam of the Parisian mosque Dalil Bubaker, the Algerian by origin is elected the chairman. The main objective of the new organization - to represent Muslims of the country and to protect their interests in government bodies. However many French Muslims are afraid of that "Sarkozy excludes civilized Muslim community from CFCM", - the chief of the Movement of the French democrat Muslims Abdurrahman Daman who controls all communities connected with Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Algeria so speaks. The imam of a mosque in Marseille Yusuf Mameri reproaches the government that it ignores a large number of Muslim communities which imams are citizens of France. Let's remind that only 9% from one thousand imams acting in the country - the French citizens, the others - citizens of Algeria, Morocco and Turkey. Five of seven Muslim organizations who by the invitation of the Government participate in activity of Council, are sponsored by the Arab countries. One more organization is financed by Turkey, another - the organization the Muslim Brotherhood. Thus, from 1600 mosques operating in France 1100 are presented to CFCM. Fears about a consequence of Islamists in a new representative body of Muslims of France were not vain. On elections to Council for Moslem doctrine which passed in April, 2003, the victory was won by representatives of radical circles. After that followed "timely" N. Sarkozy's statements: "Islamic laws are not applicable everywhere because they are not laws of the French Republic. Therefore those preachers, whose views will be contradicting republic values, will be deported". However, in general, the French minister was not so categorical. He noted that first place on number of votes in Muslim council was won by association of Muslims of the Moroccan origin professing moderate views on Islam. "I have no anything against this organization at all", - the minister summed up. This time split among Muslims of France and their relation to the new organization are defined rather not by an ethnic origin, but political views and partly belonging to these or those currents in Islam. Already today it is possible to tell with confidence that the absolute unity in the Muslim environment in France by means of creation of the new organization will not manage to be reached. New Council will represent not all political Muslim movements of France, not all currents in Islam. Guards also that fact that the French government makes contact with, perhaps, most conservative and even extremist part of Muslim immigrants, and at the same time ignores the Muslims who already managed to adapt somehow in France and to accept its political culture. Because in Paris lives a large number of the Arab intellectuals writing in French, this city became the center of distribution of the Arab Islamic literature and in general cultures in the French-speaking world. Besides such expression enough secular ideas, exist very important exit of religious and political ideas of authors. At the same time in the 1980-1990th year’s Muslim groups conducted some terrorist attacks in the territory of France under influence of either the foreign states, or civil war in Algeria. In 1994 the group of young French Muslims - natives of the Parisian region - committed an assault on tourists in Marrakech (Morocco). In 1995 a series of acts of terrorism in Paris brought police to group of young inhabitants of vicinities of Lyon. In March, 1996 in the city of Rube there was a firefight between police and group of young offenders which belonged to the radical Islamic organization and one of its participants - the newly converted Muslim Lionel Dumon was at war in Bosnia. All this negatively affected not only the relations between the French population and immigrants, but also and life of the last as the French security service strengthened control over them. Algerians were exposed to prosecutions since the beginning of the Algerian war in 1954. The hunting for "Islamists" organized by the governments of Algeria and Tunisia has also an adverse effect on the Algerians and Tunisians living in France. France was frightened not only attacks of terrorists in 80th and 90th XX century, but also all of the accruing disputes round the Muslim girls wearing hijabs at public schools. Visible manifestations of Islam planted "bomb" under uncompromising secularism as ideology of the French society and state. They also opened old wounds of the French society: the underestimation of Islam which is still taking place as culture and the social organization, bitter memories of the Algerian war defeat in which was so painful for France. Islam in France is a political problem which does not give in to a categorization. A huge number of publicists, and both Muslims, and French, claim that Islam and secularism optional contradict each other. It testifies how the abyss between French and Arab Muslim cultures is still deep.