Вариант № 10

1. Напишите предложения, заменив модальные глаголы – can, may, must на их эквиваленты в прошедшем времени. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. My friend must get up early.

2. I can drive a car.

3. You may leave for a while.

2. Раскройте скобки и напишите соответствующую форму прилагательного. Подчеркните прилагательные. Переведите предложения на русский. язык.

1. The Azov Sea is (warm) than the Black Sea.

2. This car moves (quick) than that one.

3. She is as (beautiful) as my sister.

4. Andrew is the (young) in his family.

5. This is the (interesting) book I have ever read.

3. Напишите глаголы – сказуемые в Present, Past или Future Progressive Tense, обращая внимание на указатели времени, подчеркните глаголы. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. I see that Ann (to leave) her house.

2. Yesterday we (to have) dinner at five o’clock.

3. They will (to play) football at ten o’clock tomorrow.

4. Раскройте скобки и поставьте глаголы в Present, Past или Future Perfect Tense, обращая внимание на указатели времени. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. I wonder why he (to leave) the door open. He will catch cold.

2. Tom (to return) from the cinema at five o’clock.

3. It so happens that the group will (not to come back) in time.

5. Выберите предложения в страдательном залоге (Passive Voice) и переведите их на русский язык. Подчеркните глаголы.

1. I am often asked at the lessons by the teacher.

2. You may take my book.

3. This work must be done at once.

4. What are you doing here?

5. Rostov was named after Dmitry Rostovsky.

6. He was writing a letter when I entered the room.

6. Раскройте скобки и напишите глаголы – сказуемые в соответствующей форме, соблюдая правила согласования времен, подчеркните глаголы. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. I heard that he (to buy) a house.

2. We found that she (to leave) home at eight o’clock every morning.

3. Tom supposed that they (to send) him the invitation soon.

4. We did not know where our friends (to go) every evening.

5. Pam knows that her daughter (to like) to dance.

7. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на Participle I и Participle II.

1. Standing at the window, she was waving her hand.

2. They saw overturned tables and chairs and pieces of broken glass al over the room.

8. Выберите из скобок подходящую форму причастия, подчеркните причастие.

1. The girl (writing, written) on the blackboard is our best pupil.

2. Everything (writing, written) here is quite right.

3. His hat (blowing, blown) off by the wind was lying in the middle of the street.

9. Письменно переведите на русский язык первый абзац текста.

MICROECONOMICS

The word «micro» means small, and microeconomics means economics in the small. The optimizing behavior of individual units such as households and firms provides the foundation for microeconomics. Microeconomists may investigate individual markets or even the economy as a whole, but their analyses are derived from the aggregation of the behavior of individual units. Microeconomic theory is used extensively in many areas of applied economics. For example, it is used in industrial organization, labor economics, international trade, cost-benefit analysis, and many other economic subfields. The tools and analyses of microeconomics provide a common ground, and even a language, for economists interested in a wide range of problems. At one time there was a sharp distinction in both methodology and subject matter between microeconomics and macroeconomics. The methodological distinction became somewhat blurred during the 1970s as more and more macro-economic analyses were built upon microeconomic foundations.

Nonetheless, major distinctions remain between the two major branches of economics. For example, the microeconomist is interested in the determination of individual prices and relative prices (i.e., exchange ratios between goods), whereas the macro-economist is interested more in the general price level and its change over time.

Optimization plays a key role in microeconomics. The consumer is assumed to maximize utility or satisfaction subject to the constraints imposed by income or income earning power. The producer is assumed to maximize profit or minimize cost subject to the technological constraints under which the firm operates. Optimization of social welfare sometimes is the criterion for the determination of public policy.

Opportunity cost is an important concept in microeconomics. Many courses of action are valued in terms of what is sacrificed so that they might be_, undertaken. For example, the opportunity cost of a public project is the value of the additional goods that the private sector would have produced with the resources used for the public project.

Theory of the Consumer

The individual consumer or household is assumed to possess a utility function, which specifies the satisfaction, which is gained from the consumption of alternative bundles of goods. The consumer's income or income-earning power determines which bundles are available to the consumer. The consumer then selects a bundle that gives the highest possible level of utility. With few exceptions, the consumer is treated as a price taker — that is, the consumer is free to choose whatever quantities income allows but has no influence over prevailing market prices. In order to maximize utility the consumer purchases goods so that the subjective rate of substitution for each pair of goods as indicated by the consumer's utility function equals the objective rate of substitution given by the ratio of their market prices. This basic utility maximization analysis has been modified and expanded in many different ways.

Theory of the Producer

The individual producer or firm is assumed to possess a production function, which specifies the quantity of-output produced as a function of the quantities of the inputs used in production. The producer's revenue equals the quantity of output produced and sold times its price, and the cost to the producer equals the sum of the quantities of inputs purchased and used times their prices. Profit is the difference between revenue and cost. The producer is assumed to maximize profits subject to the technology given by the production function. Profit maximization requires that the producer use each factor to a point at which its marginal contribution to revenue equals its marginal contribution to cost. Under pure competition, the producer is a price taker who may sell at the going market price whatever has been produced. Under monopoly (one seller) the producer recognizes that price declines as sales are expanded, and under monopsony (one buyer) the producer recognizes that the price paid for an input increases as purchases are increased.

A producer's cost function gives production cost as a function of output level on the assumption that the producer combines inputs to minimize production cost. Profit maximization using revenue and cost functions requires that the producer equate the decrement in revenue from producing one less unit (called marginal revenue) to the corresponding decrement in cost (called marginal cost). Under pure competition, marginal revenue equals price. Consequently, the producer equates marginal cost of production to the going market price.

WORDS

behavior – поведение

constraints – ограничение, стеснение

to investigate – исследовать

applied economics – прикладная экономика

monopsony – монопсония

distinction – отличие

subject – предмет, субъект

matter – вопрос, материал

opportunity cost – альтернативные издержки

to blur – затуманивать, размывать

tо sacrifice – пожертвовать, приносить в жертву

to remain – оставаться

exchange ratio – ставка (соотношение) обмена

to undertake – взять на себя

to allow – позволять, разрешать

optimization – оптимизация

utility – полезность

to influence – влиять

utility function – функция полезности

to maximize – максимально увеличивать

satisfaction – удовлетворение

revenue – доходы