21. Терроризм и ядерное оружие.

Terrorism - deliberate violence or the threat of violence directed at innocent non-combatants and governments to cause fear systematically to attract media attention for causes which may be political or ideological or religious and which are viewed as coercive (насильств.).

• Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.

• The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause.

• The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose.

• The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.

Types of terrorism:

• State Terrorism (when a State acts as a terroristic group; ex. Nazi Germany)

• Bioterrorism (intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians)

• Cyberterrorism (use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause)

• Ecoterrorism (new term; violence in the interests of environmentalism; sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries in spheres of fur, logging, animal research laboratories, for example)

• Nuclear terrorism (refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.)

Nuclear terrorism is the most dangerous form; it could lead to unpredictable consequences. A number of institutions were created to protect the world from it:

• IAEA (Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibits its use for military purposes. Carries out control over the nuclear objects all around the world with help of special commissions)

• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (limits the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons; opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China)

Nuclear weapons:

• Uranium based (enrichment level 80-90% (for nuclear plants 2-4.5%), 45-50 kg minimum)

• Plutonium based (ex. Nagasaki bomb: 8kg Pu-239)

Nuclear weapon is hard to be assembled, it demands a huge amount of enriched uranium 235 and plutonium 239. Just the most developed states managed to produce and test it.

A terroristic organization has no material and scientific resources to design such complicated weapon.

22. Безопасность (Safety and security) использования ядерного топлива

Safety and security of the use of nuclear fuel

Safety culture – attitude among staff towards safety

Safeguards – international accounting and verification system designed to ensure that fissile material is only used for peaceful purposes.

ALARA – reduce doses as low as reasonably possible

ALARP – reduce accidents to as low as reasonably practicable

Security – freedom from illegal acts such as terrorism

Safety – freedom from radiological and non-radiological accidents.

Weakness of the NPT:

• the state can decide that it’s not in his interest to inform you and it may not do so then you’ll never know what’s happening.

• you have to develop your own ability to observe non-intrusively its territory.(satellites with sensors)

The IAEA is involved by helping nations to develop nuclear energy for peaceful use. It also has responsibility under the NPT for ensuring that nuclear material is not diverted into weapons. To that end it carries out regular inspections of civil nuclear facilities. The NPT is complemented by international controls on the export of technology which could be used for developing nuclear weapons.

The Additional Protocol singed in 1997 which allows inspectors of AIEA more power to detect undeclared activities. Inspectors can visit any suspect location in a country without giving more than two hours notice. The Additional protocol is a major step forward in preventing the proliferation.

+The UN Environment Programme also deals with the safeguards of nuclear materials.

Chernobyl.

The international scale of accidents/incidents.

Safety nuclear material is when transported:

Canister – small container for vitrified HLW

Cask – packaging for carrying or storing highly radioactive material.

Packaging – hardware into which radioactive contents is inserted

Package – packaging plus its contents

Overpack – an extra covering around the packaging