2. Read the following and extract the necessary information.

Internet is a network connecting many computer networks and based on a common addressing system and communications protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Proto­col). From its creation in 1983 it grew rapidly beyond its largely academic origin into an increasingly commercial and popular me­dium. By the mid-1990s the Internet connected millions of com­puters throughout the world. Many commercial computer network and data services also provided at least indirect connection to the Internet.

The Internet had its origin in a U. S. Department of Defense program called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), established in 1969 to provide a secure and survivable communications network for organizations engaged in defense-re­lated research. Researchers and academics in other fields began to make use of the network, and at length the National Science Foundation (NSF), which had created a similar and parallel network called NSFNet, took over much of the TCP/IP technology from APRANET and established a distributed network of networks capable of handling far greater traffic.

Amateur radio, cable television wires, spread spectrum radio, satellite and fibre optics all have been used to deliver Internet services. Networked games, networked monetary transactions, and virtual museums are among applications being developed that both extend the network's utility and test the limits of its technology.

Electronic mail, abbreviation E-MAIL, are messages transmitted and received by digital computers through a network. An electronic-mail, or E-mail, system allows computer users on a network to send texts, graphics, and sometimes sounds and animated images to other users.

On most networks, data can be simultaneously sent to a universe of users or to a select group or individual. Network users typically have an electronic mailbox that receives, stores, and manages their correspondence. Recipients can elect to view, print, save, edit, answer, or otherwise read to communications. Many E-mail systems advanced features that alert users to incoming messages or per­mit them to employ special privacy features. Large corporations and institutions use E-mail systems as an important communication link employees and other people allowed on their networks. E-mail is also available on major public on-line and bulletin board sys­tems, many of which maintain free or low-cost global communica­tion networks.

(From 1997 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.)

TEXT 8 Space

Basic information:

Space exploration started in 1957 with the launching of the Russian satel­lite 'Sputnikl' Manned space travel followed when a Russian cos­monaut was the first to orbit the earth The Apollo moon landing, a soft landing and subsequent re-launch, was accomplished by American astronauts in 1969 Further developments include the space shuttle and permanent space stations

While unmanned space probes continue to explore deep space, the mam interest now is in communications satellites and meteorological satel­lites (which are usually in a geostationary position), m spy satellites and manned space stations or laboratories They are used for research as they allow experiments under conditions of weightlessness or zero gravity

exploration

to launch

satellite [ saetalait]

(un-)manned

cosmonaut

to orbit

moon landing

re-launch

astronaut

space station

probe

deep space

communications

meteorological

geostationary

spy

laboratory

research

weightlessness

zero gravity

The launching of a rocket:

Orbiters, shuttles, space stations and satellites are the payload of a earner rocket, which sits on a launch(mg) pad at a launching site

During the countdown all systems are constantly checked, mainly by com­puters If no system failures or other flaws are detected, the count­down runs to three - two - one - zero - ignition (and lift-off) Once the spacecraft has reached a certain altitude, the (normally two) booster rocket stages are jettisoned, as well as the external fuel tank When m orbit, the shuttle's onboard computers control its steering and naviga­tion - its own orbital manoeuvring system takes over

A space shuttle, consisting of the orbiter (as part of the payload), the exter­nal fuel tank and the solid-fuel booster rockets, places satellites in orbit or docks modules on to a space station It may deliver supplies or be used to exchange crew members

The return to earth:

The space shuttle, which is protected by heat-resistant tiles during its re­entry into the earth's atmosphere, can land on any large airstrip or runway Great progress has been made since the Apollo space mis­sions, when the capsules splashed down in the ocean by parachute and were picked up by a ship

orbiter (space) shuttle payload carrier rocket launch(ing) pad launching site to check failure flaw ignition lift-off spacecraft altitude

heat-resistant tile

re-entry

airstrip

runway

mission

capsule

to splash down

parachute

booster rocket

stage

to jettison

external fuel tank

to steer

manoeuvring] system

solid fuel

to dock

module

supply

crew

TEXT 9 Genetic Engineering

Basic information:

Every living creature contains more than 100,000 genes, which are the units in chromosomes controlling heredity The genes are made of DNA, the hereditary material (the 'building bricks'), which contains the genetic code of a living being, it is by this material that its cellular structure is defined

Many people have inherited diseases because of a defect т just one of their genes In Britain, for example, about one in 500 people suffers from a hereditary form of heart disease Some of their children can be helped by gene replacement therapy, by gene transplants before birth (defec­tive genes are replaced by sound ones) Human gene transplants may soon be a common practice т laboratories

Genetic engineering, like biotechnology т general, is a new science It poses incalculable risks and many moral and ethical questions (for exam­ple, the artificial creation and cloning of human beings) On the other hand, it can be beneficial to modern medicine certain diseases which cause misery, pain and distress to both children and parents can be eradicated т this way

breed

goat

embryo donation

preservation

genetic therapy

cloning

species

genetic engineering

living creature

gene

chromosome

heredity

DNA (d eoxyribo n ucleic a cid)

hereditary

genetic code

cellular structure

to inherit

defect

replacement

transplant

laboratory

biotechnology

artificial creation

beneficial

distress

to eradicate

Examples of applied genetic engineering:

1 Genetically engineered sheep produce human proteins used to combat blood diseases, for example haemophilia В The researchers inject hu­man genes, which code the factor-VIII protein, into the fertilized eggs of sheep so that the protein will finally emerge m the animals' milk, from which it must then be isolated

2 Scientists have found a way of correcting a hereditary defect which causes a severe form of heart disease (people who inherit this disease suffer from high cholesterol levels) They have inserted a gene that controls body cholesterol levels into liver cells, using a specially created virus So far this technique has worked m rabbit cells

Geneticists' arguments in favour of genetic engineering:

1 By producing hybrids of plants (for example hybrid wheat) or animals (half sheep, half goat) they can help farmers worldwide gram grows faster and is made resistant to insects and diseases, animals are more productive, need less food etc

2 Hybrid animals can produce drugs and help modern medicine m its search for new products to combat blood diseases etc

3 By modifying an embryo's structure at an early stage geneticists can exclude some genetic risks

4 The discovery of a defective gene need not necessarily raise the option of abortion preventive treatment may suffice

Moral and ethical questions raised by genetic engineering:

1 The dignity of the unborn child, its uniqueness, must be respected the embryo's life ought to be protected from the moment of fertilization on

2 Should certain types of experimentation on embryos be allowed m spite of -he danger of human beings being regarded as laboratory material

3 Should an embryo be aborted if it has a defective gene which has been discovered prenatally

4 Scientists may attempt to produce a super-species of human being they may use gene transplants to enhance physical appearap.ce, talents or intelligence, which could give rise to the danger of genetic manipula­tion

protein

to combat

haemophilia В

researcher

to inject

to code

factor VIII

to fertilize

to emerge

scientist

cholesterol level

to insert

liver cell

virus

technique

rabbit

geneticist

hybrid

plant

hybrid wheat

grain

resistant

drug

to modify

early stage

option of abortion

preventive treatment

to suffice

dignity

uniqueness [ju m knis]

experimentation on

to abort

defective

prenatally

super-species

to enhance

physical appearance

genetic manipulation

TEXT 10 Test-tube Babies and Surrogate Motherhood

Basic information:

Since the first test tube baby was born in Britain m 1978, there have been thousands of such births and the number is on the increase This method of artificial insemination is no longer as controversial as it was some years ago because both egg and sperm are taken from the parents

The donor eggs are fertilized m the laboratory by sperm from the husband of the mother to-be Then the eggs are deep-frozen until the optimum moment m the recipient mother's natural cycle Finally the egg, which has been fertilized m vitro, is transplanted into the uterus

In 1985 the first birth of a baby born to a surrogate mother for money took place m Britain ('Baby Cotton') There was a somewhat hostile reaction on the part of the public on moral and legal grounds you 'buy' a baby that has yet to be conceived and you pay a woman to have a fertilized egg implanted and to have a baby that she will later have to give away

It is now even possible to defrost human embryos and place them m surrogate mothers As many childless couples long to have a baby, highly fertile women 'rich m eggs' donate ova to infertile women deficient m eggs women willing to be egg donors give their surplus eggs to the hospital

Moral, ethical and legal problems:_____________________________

1 The egg donor's background must be probed into very carefully to en­sure that she is not a drug addict, does not suffer from Aids etc

2 Should embryos be implanted in childless women

3 How long should surplus embryos be stored in 'embryo banks' (fer­tilized eggs can be successfully stored for some years) and what should be done with surplus embryos later m order to prevent possible abuse

4 What if the baby is deformed

5 How will the parents react if, instead of one baby, twins or triplets are born

6 Should surrogate motherhood for financial gam be prohibited and infer­tile couples be encouraged to adopt children instead

test-tube baby

surrogate motherhood

artificial insemination

controversial

egg

sperm

donor

to fertilize

laboratory

mother-to-be

deep-frozen

recipient

natural cycle

in vitro

to transplant

uterus

surrogate mother

to conceive

to implant

to defrost

embryo

childless couple

fertile /infertile

to donate

ovum (sg) ova (pl)

surplus

drug addict

to store

abuse

deformed

twins

triplets

to adopt