- •Elektronski fakultet
- •Written and spoken communications in english for science and technology introduction
- •Nadežda Stojković
- •Edicija: Pomoćni udžbenici
- •Elektronski fakultet
- •Nadežda Stojković
- •Isbn 86-85195-02-0
- •Table of contents
- •VI correspondence 73
- •VII spoken presentations and interviews 99
- •VIII bibliography 117
- •Foreword
- •II paragraph
- •2.1. Paragraph structure
- •2.2. Kinds of paragraphs
- •III essay
- •3.1. Parts of an essay
- •Introduction
- •3.2. Kinds of essays
- •3.3. Five paragraph model of composition
- •Introductory paragraph
- •3.4. Quotations/ references/ bibliography
- •IV formal reports and instructions
- •4.1. Formal reports format
- •4.2. Proposal (feasibility), progress and final report
- •4.2.1. Proposal (feasibility) report
- •4.2.2. Progress report
- •4.2.3. Final report
- •Introduction
- •4.3. Laboratory report
- •4.4. Design reports
- •Introduction
- •4.5. Instructions
- •4.5.1. Instructions format
- •Introduction:
- •4.6. User guides
- •Information Included in User Guides
- •4.7. Other types of technical documents/reports
- •V research papers
- •5.1. Research papers planning and writing
- •5.1.1. Note on style
- •5.1.2. General structure of a research paper
- •Introduction:
- •5.2. Journal articles
- •5.2.1. Prose and style considerations
- •5.2.2. Specific sections of an article:
- •5.3. Diploma paper
- •5.3.1. General structure of a diploma paper
- •5.3.2. Diploma paper defending
- •5.4. Master's vs PhD thesis
- •5.5. General features of a PhD thesis
- •5.5.1. Two types of PhD theses
- •5.6. PhD thesis proposal
- •5.6.1. Proposal format
- •5.7. PhD thesis format
- •Introduction
- •VI correspondence
- •6.1. Common letter components
- •Sample letter of common kind
- •6.2. Types of correspondence
- •6.2.1. Technical Cooperation
- •6.2.2. Technical Visits Abroad
- •6.2.3. Technical Visits from Abroad
- •6.2.4. Technical Training
- •6.2.5. Requesting Information
- •6.2.6. Complaint and Adjustment Letters
- •6.2.7. Application Letter
- •Sample application letter
- •6.2.8. Letter of Recommendation
- •Sample letter of recommendation
- •6.2.9. Resume/ cv
- •The common structure of a resume/cv
- •Helpful tips considering cv style
- •Sample cv
- •Your name
- •6.2.10. Cover Letters
- •Sample cover letter
- •6.2.11. Thank you Letters
- •Sample post-interview thank you letter
- •Sample post-information thank you letter
- •Sample job offer acceptance thank you letter
- •6.2.12. Memorandum
- •6.2.13. Emails
- •VII spoken presentations and interviews
- •7.1. Spoken presentations
- •7.2. Preparing and delivering formal spoken presentation
- •1) Analyse your audience
- •2) Know your task
- •3) Determine primary purpose
- •4) Shape your presentation
- •5) Select effective supporting information
- •6) Choose an appropriate pattern of organisation
- •7) Select appropriate visual aids
- •8) Prepare a suitable introduction
- •9) Prepare a closing summary
- •10) Practice
- •11) Delivery
- •12) Time and focus
- •7.3. Scientific discussion - argumentation and contra argumentation
- •6. Conclusion
- •7.3.1. Appropriate phrases for developing an argument
- •7.4. Interviews
- •7.4.1. Some interview tips
- •7.4.2. Common interview questions and answering hints
- •VIII bibliography
II paragraph
2.1. Paragraph structure
Most of the science and technology writing consists of paragraphs. A paragraph is a small unit of writing that focuses on one idea which is then further developed and explained. The three, most common parts of a paragraph are: topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a closing one (A.O. Strauch 1998).
The topic sentence
The topic sentence is most usually the first sentence in a paragraph. It introduces the main idea, the topic, of the paragraph. It has two constituent parts: the main and the controlling idea. The main idea indicates the theme of the paragraph, but it is the controlling idea that identifies the angle from which it will be approached or what arguments will be presented.
This is the crucial part of a paragraph as it has to be at once clear and precise. Depending on the paragraph, the topic sentence can be a definition, it can present author's beliefs, viewpoints, etc. But, generally speaking, it has to be a kind of summary of what is to come in the paragraph.
A good example of a topic sentence is: Today's computers have four major components. The main idea of this topic sentence is today's computers. The controlling one is the fact that there are four major components. Thus, the readers would know that the paragraph would proceed to explain what those are and defend that viewpoint by supportive arguments. A bad example of a topic sentence is: Computers are important. This sentence is too broad and vague and so it would be too difficult to develop it adequately in one paragraph.
Supporting sentences
The supporting part of a paragraph explains, describes, or develops the main idea given in the topic sentence. Supporting sentences should present facts, details, and examples that directly relate to the main idea. They should be such as to concretely support the controlling idea of the topic sentence.
A closing sentence
A closing sentence summarises the idea expressed in the paragraph by simply restating it. It can also give a hint of what is to come in the next paragraph by opening another aspect of the theme discussed.
EXAMPLE:
Every instrument, no matter how sophisticated its application, or how complicated its design may be, contains at least one sensing element, a sensor. That sensing element is the heart of the device and is always a surprisingly simple electronic component. The basic purpose of a sensor is to convert (or transduce) differences in some environmental condition into a change in a circuit parameter (voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, inductance, etc.) that can be processed to achieve some desired result.
2.2. Kinds of paragraphs
According to the content, paragraphs can be classified as following:
definition, classification, description, compare and contrast, sequence, choice, explanation, and evaluation paragraphs (L.Hamp-Lyons 1987). This, however, is not the only possible classification. The classes may differ according to various criteria employed.
Definition paragraph deals with precise defining of a concept. Definitions can usually be given in two ways: either by identifying the class to which the term belongs and then stating the specific features and the main differences between the term and the other members of the class; or by using words such as: (can) be defined as, be called, be termed, be known as, be referred to as, be used to, have/display/exhibit the capacity to/ the property of.
Type 1: A turbine is a machine which produces power when steam, gas or water is passed over the blades attached to the rotating drive output shaft.
Type 2: Turbine is defined as a machine which produces power when steam, gas, or water is passed over the blades attached to the rotating drive output shaft.
When writing a classification paragraph things or ideas are classified into certain categories having some common feature and according to a clearly stated criterion. Useful expressions are: is a kind of, to be divided into, is a type of, falls under the category of, belongs to, is a part of, fits into, is grouped with, is related to, is associated with.
Example: ABS falls under the category of thermoplastics because it softens when heated again and again.
Classification can be made either from general to specific or vice versa.
Description paragraph is about what something is like. If it deals with certain properties, then it usually is about size, colour, shape, purpose. In case of measurement, the qualities to be mentioned are, for example: height, width, length, mass/weight, speed. It can also be about an analogy with something else. Then, these expressions would be used: is like, resembles... Location can be easily described with prepositions or adverbs of place, such as: sideways, below, beyond, inside, within, etc.
Compare and contrast paragraph explores similarities and differences between or among certain things or issues. Some comparison and contrast expressions are:
Similarity: is similar to, both, either or, neither nor, also, too, as well.
Differences: on the other hand, however, but, in contrast (to), differs from, unlike, whereas, while.
Sequence paragraph describes a series of events or a process in some sort of an order. Usually, this order is based on time. For this purpose sequence markers are used. They are: first, second, third, in the beginning, before, then, after, finally, at last, subsequently, recently, previously, afterwards.
In a choice paragraph the author makes a choice, chooses which object, idea, or action they prefer. Often, an opinion is given on a choice of actions or events.
The following are the helper words for point of view and personal opinion: in my opinion, it is my belief, idea, according to my understanding, I think that, I consider, I believe, it seems to me, I prefer, like, dislike, hope, feel.
Explanation paragraph deals with reasons of how or why something happens, it investigates into the causes and effects of certain events. The helper words are:
Cause: because, since, as a result, due to.
Effect: therefore, thus, consequently, hence, it follows that, if ... then.
Evaluation paragraph presents judgements about certain issues. The actual evaluation needs to be based on well defined criteria. It is often followed by recommendation also supported by referring to the stated criteria. The useful words are:
Criteria and evaluation: good/bad, consistent/inconsistent/, effective/non-effective, important, trivial;
Recommendation: suggest, recommend, argue for/against, advise.