- •History of Biophysics
- •Viruses possess only a portion of the ______________ of organisms.
- •Characteristics of Atmospheric Turbulence
- •In adult insects, the wings are solid ______________ the veins.
- •Complexities of Animal Energetics
- •Plants and Plant Communities
- •Nature and Subject of Biophysics
- •Molecular Structure of Biological Systems Part 1
- •Molecular Structure of Biological Systems Part 2
- •Energy transfer by charge carriers
- •In effect, selection is operating to prevent change away from this middle range of ______________.
- •Photosynthesis as Process of Energy Transfer and Energy Transformation
- •Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy
- •In atp the reactive group ______________ to the end of the amp phosphate group is not another nucleotide but rather a chain of two additional phosphate groups.
- •The Information Content of a Nucleic Acid
- •Biological Structures: General Aspects
- •Thermal Molecular Movement
- •In the pns, both myelinated and unmyelinated axons are bundled together, much like ______________ in a cable, to form nerves.
- •Models, Heterogeneity, and Scale
- •The Water Structure, Effects of Hydration
- •In a human, if the body temperature exceeds the set point of 37°c, sensors in a part of the brain detect this ______________.
- •Water Potential and Water Content
- •Water Potentials in Organisms and their Surroundings
- •Structure Formation of Biomacromolecules
- •Self Assembly and the Molecular Structure of Membranes
- •Mechanical Properties of Biological Membranes
- •Systems, Parameters and State Functions
- •In thermodynamics, systems are classified as follows according to the nature of their boundary against their environment:
- •Potential Energy Contour Tracing
- •Entropy and Stability
- •Pauli Exclusion Principle
- •Строение атомов и принцип Паули
- •Electronegativity and Strong Bonds
- •Электроотрицательность
- •Internal Energy
- •Внутренняя энергия
- •Bond Energies
- •Энергия связи
- •Water, Acids, Bases and Aqueous Reactions
- •Стохастические модели взаимодействия
- •Рентгеноструктурный анализ
- •Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
- •Ядерный магнитный резонанс
- •Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy
- •Принцип действия сканирующего туннельного микроскопа
- •Patch Clamping
- •Proteins
- •Nucleic acids
- •Дифракция рентгеновских лучей
- •Photo- and chemo-bioenergetics
- •Biological systems
- •If all relevant protein carriers are in use, increases in the ______________ do not increase the transport rate.
- •Neurobiophysics
- •Распространение нервного импульса
- •Nerve Cells
- •Аксон и нервный импульс
- •Myelinated Neurons
- •Signal reception
- •Time-resolved Crystallography
- •Biological Polymers
- •Nucleic Acids
- •Нуклеиновые кислоты
- •Nucleic Acid Conformation: dna
- •Proteins
- •Protein Folding
- •In terrestrial vertebrates, the forebrain plays a far more ______________ in neural processing than it does in fishes.
- •Фолдинг белка
- •Respiration
- •Bacterial Motion
- •Muscular Movement
- •In some neurons specialized for rapid signal conduction, the axon is encased in a myelin ______________ that is interrupted at intervals.
- •Energy Exchange
- •In addition, the interactions that occur between members of a population also depend critically on a population’s size and ______________.
- •Continuity in the Biosphere
- •Water Vapor and Other Gases
- •Газы атмосферы
- •Covalent Bonds, Molecular Orbitals
- •Coordinative Bonds, Metallo-Organic Complexes
- •In dry years, when only large, tough seeds are available, the ______________ beak size increases.
- •Типы металлоорганических соединений
- •Hydrogen Bond
- •Mechanisms of Molecular Energy Transfer
- •In general, the following mechanisms of intermolecular energy transfer must be considered: energy transfer by radiation, energy transfer by inductive resonance, energy transfer by charged carriers
Time-resolved Crystallography
Another important development that has emerged from the availability of the synchrotron X-ray source is 'millisecond macromolecular crystallography'. This development (still in the emerging stage) promises to extend the range of structure dynamics studies of biochemical problems by X-ray crystallography. Because of the high intensity of X-rays from the synchrotron radiation source, the time span of intensity data collection can be reduced to seconds; and under certain orientations of the crystal, a complete intensity data set can be obtained in a single exposure (by the Laue method). This technique was applied successfully to study the binding of the ligand, maltoheptose, to glycogen phosphorylase-b by taking Laue diffraction sets before, during and after the addition of the ligand, and it was established conclusively that the ligand, maltoheptose, was bound to the glycogen-storage site of the enzyme. More such developments are expected in the coming years.
Both Laue photography and the anomalous dispersion technique are not new methodologies, but with the availability of the right source and concomitant advances in instrumentation, new frontiers of research have been opened up to exploit the full potentiality of X-ray diffraction techniques. For example, the structure determination of bacterial photoreaction centres has been accomplished for which the group led by Huber was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1988. However, the structure represents only the static picture of the ground state of the photoreaction centres. Subtle structural (or conformational) changes that occur during charge-separation (exited state) could now be attempted by the application of 'time-resolved' X-ray crystallography.
Detailed structural information on biological molecules is crucial for interpreting their functions features. X-ray diffraction techniques, augmented by NMR and semi-empirical methods of structure prediction and computer modelling can yield the necessary structural information on the structure dynamics and functions of biologically important compounds. In addition, data augmented by recent biochemical methods, such as site-directed mutagenesis, establishing the functional roles of specific groups in a macro molecule, by selectively altering the groups and monitoring the altered functions, has enormously increased the crucial and central role X-ray crystallography will play in the coming years in all fields of biological and medical sciences.
Define the following words
Concomitant, instrumentation, to exploit, to augment, semi-empirical, mutagenesis, to yield.
Complete the sentences
Another important development that has emerged from…
Because of the high intensity of X-rays…
This technique was applied successfully to study...
Subtle structural changes that occur during charge-separation…
Detailed structural information on biological molecules
Augmented by NMR, X-ray diffraction techniques…
Match the words in the left column with suitable words in the right column to make up collocations. Translate them into Russian.
extend |
changes |
time |
exposure |
data |
method |
single |
mutagenesis |
ground |
set |
structural |
span |
site-directed |
state |
empirical |
the range |
Translate the text into Russian orally
Атомное строение кристалла определяется по тому, каким образом пучок рентгеновских лучей дифрагирует на нем в разных направлениях. Кристалл состоит из бесчисленного множества маленьких элементарных ячеек, каждая из которых построена из одного и того же весьма определенного набора атомов. Эти ячейки повторяются регулярно подобно рисунку на обоях, за тем исключением, что в кристаллах эта повторяемость идет по всем направлениям в трехмерном пространстве. Направления рассеяния пучка зависят от расстояний, через которые повторяется вся картина. С другой стороны, интенсивность дифрагировавших пучков зависит от расположения атомов в каждой ячейке. Волны, рассеиваемые атомами, интерферируют, приводя к усилению интенсивности в одних направлениях и ослаблению — в других. Цель рентгенографического анализа состоит в том, чтобы определить то расположение атомов, которое отвечает наблюдаемым интенсивностям многих дифрагировавших пучков.
Это подводит нас к вопросу о том, почему именно рентгеновские лучи, а не другие доступные нам виды электромагнитного излучения, необходимы для проведения таких исследований. Для того чтобы в результате интерференции дифрагировавших пучков произошли заметные изменения в интенсивности рассеяния по разным направлениям, необходимо, чтобы пути, проходимые рассеянными пучками, отличались примерно на длину волны. Только в случае рентгеновского излучения длины волн достаточно коротки для того, чтобы это условие было выполнено.
