Лекции по медицине

ЛЕКЦИЯ № 39. The progess of digestion

The process of digestion begins when food is taken into the mouth. Chewing brеакs the food into smaller pieces, thereby exposing more surfaces to the saliva. Saliva itself has a double function. It moistens the food, so facilitating swallowing, and it contains the enzyme which begins the conversion of carbohydrates into simple sugars.

Although enzymatic action begins in the mouth, the major processes of digestion do not occur until the food passes down through the esophagus into the stomach. The stomach has both a chemical and a physical function. The walls of the stomach, which are protected by a layer of mucus, secrete gastric juices composed of several enzymes and hydrochloric acid. The most powerful enzyme is pepsin, which begins the process of converting proteins into amino acids. In addition, during these chemical reactions waves of contraction; and relaxation, known as peristalsis, move the walls of the stomach. They turn the food particles into a'semi-sqlid mass known as chyme.

From the stomach, the chyme passes into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter. Much undigested food is still present Proteins have not been completely broken down, carbohydrates are still being converted into simple sugars, and fats remain in large globules. In the small intestine the process of digestion is completed by the action of the bile, which is secreted by the liver and released by the gallbladder, and by the action of various enzymes which are secreted by the pancreas and walls of the small in testine. Food which are still undigested pass on in a liquid state into large intestine. Absorption of the products of digestion taken place mainly through the wall of the small intestine.

Digestion

Chewing movements of the teeth, tongue, cheeks, lips and lower jaw break down food, mix it with saliva and roll it into a moist, soft mass called a bolus, suitable for swallowing.

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Having been rendered suitable for swallowing the food is pushed back into the pharynx by the tongue, and enters the esopha gus to be transported rapidly down the neck and thorax, through the diaphragm to the stomach. The mucous membrane of the stomach is equipped with millions of glands secreting mucus, digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

The small intestine is the region within which the process of digestion is completed and its products are absorbed. Although its epithelial lining forms many small glands, they mainly produce mucus. Most of the enzymes present are secreted by the pancreas, whose duct, opens into the duodenum. Bile from the liver also enters the duodenum.

The absorption of the product's of digestion also takes place in the small intestine, although water, salts, and glucose are ab sorbed from the stomach and the large intestine.

The large intestine is chiefly concerned with the preparation, storage and evacuation of undigestible and unabsorbable food residue.

New words

process of digestion — процесс переваривания to begin — начинаться

food — пища

to be taken — быть взятым mouth — рот

сhewing — жевание smaller — меньший pieces — части

thereby — таким образом exposing — демонстрация saliva — слюна

double — двойной

to moisten — увлажнять facilitating — облегчение contains — содержит enzyme — фермент

conversion — преобразование carbohydrates — углеводы

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аlthough — хотя action — действие

to pass down — передавать through — через

stomach — живот chemical — химикат

physical function — физическая функция rendered — предоставленный

suitable — подходящий tongue — язык

rapidly — быстро

equipped — оборудованный hydrochloric acid — соляная кислота absorption — поглощение

Спряжение глаголов в Past Simple Tense — правильные глаголы (действие совершалось в прошлом, когда время указано точно).

Спряжение глагола to work в Past Simple Tense Таблица 10

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Спряжение глаголов в Past Simple Tense — неправильные глаголы Таблица 11

Перепишите следующий текст, употребив глаголы в прошедшем времени.

On Monday we have five lessons. The first lesson is Russian. At this lesson we write a dictation and do some exercises. Jack goes to the blackboard. He answers well and gets a « five». Pete does not get a «five'», because he does not know his lesson. After the second lesson I go to the canteen. I eat a sandwich and drink a cup of tea. I do not drink milk. After school I do not go home at once, I go to the library and take a book. Then I go home.

Answer the questions.

1.When the process of digestion begins?

2.What does chewing do?

3.Does saliva have a double function?

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ЛЕКЦИЯ № 40. Sources of energy

The fuels of the body are carbohydrates, fats and proteins. These are taken in the diet.

Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy in most diets. They are absorbed into the blood stream in the form of glu cose. Glucose not needed for immediate use is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver. When the blood sugar concentra tion goes down, the liver reconverts some of its stored glycogen into glucose.

Pats make up the second largest source of energy in most diets. They are stored in adipose tissue and round the principal internal organs. If excess carbohydrate is taken in, this can be converted into fat and stored. The stored fat is utilized when the liver is empty of glycogen.

Proteins are essential for the growth and rebuilding of tissue, but they can also be utilized as a source of energy. In some diets, such as the diet of the Eskimo, they form the main source of energy. Proteins are first broken down into amino acids. Then they are absorbed into the blood and pass round the body. Amino acids not used by the body are eventually excreted in the urine in the form of urea. Proteins, unlikecarbohydrates and fats, cannot be stored for future use.

The digestive system, or gastrointestinal tract, begins with the mouth, where food enters the body, and ends with the anus, where solid waste material leaves the body. The primary function of the organs of the digestive system are threefold.

First, complex food material which is taken into the mouth must be digested mechanically and chemically, as it travels through, the gastrointestinal tract.

Second, the digested food must be absorbed by passage through the walls of the small intestine into the blood stream so that the valuable energy-carrying nutrients can travel to all cells of the body.

The third function of the gastrointestinal tract is to eliminate the solid waste materials which are unable to be absorbed by the small intestine.

In the man the food in the mouth is masticated, that is to say it is bitten and broken up by the teeth and rolled into the bolus by the tongue.

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The degree of chewing which is possible depends on the jaw articulation, the latter depending on the food. Mastication is voluntary, but it may be reflex, each closure of the jaw acting as a stimulus for their reopening.

After mastication the bolus is swallowed: the swallowing starts as a voluntary movement, but its accomplishment is a chain of reflexes involving the movement of the food by peristalsis, the closure of the nasal and tracheal openings, and the cessation of respiration. Cranial nerves V, IX, and XII are involved.

Peristalsis is a type of muscular contraction characteristic of the gut and consists in waves of contraction, these running along the muscles, both circular and longitudinal, towards the anus.

If the food is fluid it enters the stomach six seconds after the beginning of the act, but If It is solid it takes much long er, up to fifteen minutes, to pass down the esophagus.

In the stomach the food is thoroughly mixed by the series of contractions, three or four a minute, the contraction waves pass ing from the middle of the stomach to the pylorus. These tend to drive the food in the same direction, but the pylorus being closed, there is axial reflex, owing to which the food is well mixed. After a time — a bout a minute when water has been swallowed — the pylorus relaxes at each wave, allowing some of the stomach contents to enter the duodenum. Fat stays in the stomach longer than carbo hydrate, but all food leaves generally in three or four hours. In the small intestine the food continues to be moved by peristalsis, the latter controlled by the deep nerve plexus. The small intestine undergoes segmentation movements, the food contents being thoroughly mired The wall becomes constricted into a number of segments and then about five seconds later the constrictions disappear, there being another set exactly out of phase with the first. The large intestine undergoes infrequent powerful contractions, food having entered it. From the large intestine the food enters the rectum.

New words

fuels — топливо carbohydrates — углеводы fats — жиры

proteins — белки diet — диета

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principal source — основной источник energy — энергия

glucose — глюкоза

immediate — непосредственный use — использование

is converted — преобразован glycogen — гликоген

stored — сохраненный liver — печень

sugar — сахар

adipose — животный жир excess — избыток utilized — используемый empty — пустой essential — основа growth — рост

rebuilding — восстановление acids — кислоты

amino acids — аминокислоты contractions — сокращения pylorus — пилорус

direction — направление

axial reflex — осевое отражение

Past Continuous Tense (Past Progressive Tense) (действие в процессе, совершалось в определенный момент или протекало в течение четко ограниченного периода времени в прошлом).

Спряжение глагола to work

в Past Continuous Tense Таблица 12

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Спряжение глагола to work

в Past Continuous Tense Окончание табл. 12

Раскройте скобки, употребляя глголы

вPresent Continuous или Past Continuous.

1.I (to write) an English exercise now.

2.I (to write) an English exercise at this time yesterday.

3.My little sister (to sleep) now.

4 My little sister (to sleep) at this time yesterday.

5.My friends (not to do) their homework now. They (to play) vol- ley-ball.

6.My friends (not to do) their homework at seven o'clock yesterday. They (to play) volley-ball.

7.You (to eat) ice-cream now?

8.You (to eat) ice-cream when I rang you up yesterday?

9.What your father (to do) now?

10.What your father (to do) from eight till nine yesterday?

11.Why she (to cry) now?

12.Why she (to cry) when I saw her yesterday?

13.She (to read) the whole evening yesterday.

14.She (not to read) now.

15.Now she (to go) to school.

16.What you (to do) now? — I (to drink) tea.

17.You (to drink) tea at this time yesterday? — No, I (not to drink) tea at this time yesterday, I (to eat) a banana.

18.My sister is fond of reading. She (to read) the whole-evening yesterday, and now she (to read) again.

19.Look! My cat (to play) with a ball.

20.When I went out into the garden, the sun (to shine) and birds (to sing) in the trees.

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