I.P. Volchok, S.B. Belikov, V.V. Gazha
Text-book
ZNTU, Dike Pole
2008
Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
Zaporizhzhya National Technical University
I.P. Volchok, s.B. Belikov, V.V. Gazha
Text-book
ZNTU, Dike Pole
2008
УДК 621.7+621.9(075.8)
ББК
Reviewers: Professor, D.Sc. (Engineering) Bolshakov V.I.
Professor, D.Sc. (Engineering) Kutsova V.Z.
Professor, D.Sc. (Phisical-Mathematical) Vorobjov G.M.
Approved by the Science Council of Zaporizhzhya National Technical University. Record №8 from 10/04/2007. I.P. Volchok, S.B. Belikov, V.V. Gazha. Material Science and Technology of Structural Materials: The textbook is intented for students of a speciality 7.03050 «Translation» and also for students of other specialities studying technical disciplines in English / Under editor-ship of I.P. Volchok, Professor, D.Sc. (Engineering) – Zaporizhzhya: ZNTU; Dike Pole, 2008. - 172 p.
In the book the information about engineering materials properties is given. Metallurgical processes of ferrous and non-ferrous metals production are briefly considered. The main foundry processes, forming operation technologies, welding, cutting operations are described.
ББК.
ISBN
I.P. Volchok, s.B. Belikov, V.V. Gazha, 2008
Zaporizhzhya National Technical University, 2008
Dike Pole, 2008
Contents
Preface……………………………………………………………........................................ |
8 |
1 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS …………………………………………………............ |
9 |
1.1. Classification and General Properties of Structural Materials……………………... |
9 |
1.2. Mechanical Properties…………………………………….………………………... |
10 |
1.2.1. Stress and Strain…………………………………...…………………………. |
10 |
1.2.2. Tension Tests………………………………………………………………… |
11 |
1.2.3. Hardness of Metals…………………………………....……………………… |
13 |
1.2.4. Mechanical Properties Determined in Dynamic Tests……………………….. |
16 |
1.2.5. Fatigue………….……..……………………………..………………………. |
17 |
1.3. Atomic-Crystal Structure of Metals…………………………...………………… |
19 |
1.3.1. General Features of Metals………..…………………………………………. |
19 |
1.3.2. Concept of Crystal Lattice……………………………….………..…………. |
19 |
1.3.3. Allotropic (Polymorphic) Transformations……………...……………..……. |
20 |
1.3.4. Anisotropy of Metals Properties……………………….......………………… |
20 |
1.3.5. Defects in Crystal Lattices of Metals………………………………………… |
21 |
1.3.6. Theoretical and Engineering Strength of Metals………..…………………… |
23 |
1.3.7. Diffusion…………………………..…………………………………………. |
25 |
1.4. Solidification and Metal Structure………………………..………………………... |
25 |
1.4.1. Primary Crystallization of Metals in Solidification……..…………………… |
25 |
1.4.2. Macro- and Microstructure of Metals and Alloys……….…………………… |
26 |
1.5. Phase Diagrams and Structure of Alloys. System of Iron-Carbon Alloys…………. |
29 |
1.5.1. Essence and Plotting of Phase Diagrams………..….……………………....... |
29 |
1.5.2. Components and Phases of the Iron-Carbon System…………………..…….. |
30 |
1.5.3. Iron-Cementite Equilibrium Diagram (Metastable Equilibrium)…………..... |
31 |
1.5.4. Effect of Carbon and Minor Constituents on the Properties of Steel……..…. |
33 |
1.6. Heat-Treatment of Steel…………………………………..………………………... |
34 |
1.6.1. Phase Transformations in Iron Alloys……………...……………………....... |
34 |
1.6.2. Practice of Heat-Treatment of Steel…………………….…………………..... |
36 |
1.7. Chemical Heat-Treatment (Casehardening) of Steel………………………………. |
40 |
1.8. Classification and Identification of Iron-Carbon Alloys... ……………………........ |
41 |
1.8.1. Steels……………..………………………………….……………………….. |
41 |
1.8.2. Cast Irons………………………………………………...……………..……. |
44 |
1.9. Non-ferrous Metals………………………………………..……………………….. |
46 |
1.9.1. Aluminum and Its Alloys…………………..………..……………………….. |
46 |
1.9.2. Copper and Copper-base Alloys……………………………………..………. |
46 |
1.9.3. Magnesium and Its Alloys…………………………………..……………….. |
47 |
1.9.4. Titanium and Titanium-base Alloys…………………….………..………….. |
47 |
1.9.5. Babbits…………………………………………………..………………….... |
48 |
2. METALLURGY……………………………………………….……………………….. |
49 |
2.1. Materials Used in Metallurgy…………………………….………………………... |
49 |
2.2. Blast-Furnace Process…………………………………….……………………….. |
50 |
2.3. Steel production……………………………………………………………………. |
52 |
2.3.1. Oxygen-Converter Process………………………………………..…………. |
52 |
2.3.2. Open - Hearth Process………………………………….…………………….. |
54 |
2.3.3. Electric Steel Making…………………………………...……………..…....... |
55 |
2.3.4 Tapping and Teeming………………………………………………………… |
57 |
2.3.5 Production of High-Quality and Super-High Quality Steels……………….… |
59 |
2.4. Production of Non-Ferrous Metals………………………..……………………….. |
61 |
2.4.1. Production of Aluminium……………………………………………………. |
62 |
2.4.2. Production of Copper………………………………………………..……….. |
63 |
2.4.3. Production of Magnesium…………………..……….……………………….. |
63 |
2.4.4. Production of Titanium…………………………………..……..……………. |
64 |
2.5. Powder metallurgy……………………………………….……………………….... |
65 |
3. FOUNDRY PRACTICE………………………………………………………………..... |
67 |
3.1. Theoretical Fundamentals of Foundry………………….......…………………........ |
67 |
3.2. Manufacture of Castings in Sand Moulds…………………...…………………........ |
69 |
3.3. Shell-Moulding Process……………………………………..……………………… |
73 |
3.4. Metal Mould Casting………………………………………..……………………… |
74 |
3.5. Centrifugal Casting (Spinning)……………………………..………………………. |
75 |
3.6. Pressure-Die Casting……………………………………...………………………. |
76 |
3.7. Investment Casting………………………………………….……………………… |
77 |
3.8. Modern Processes of Metal Production for Castings………..……………………… |
78 |
3.8.1. Cast Iron Production for Castings……………………………………………... |
78 |
3.8.2. Steel Castings Production……………………………..……………………... |
81 |
3.8.3. Melting of Copper-Base Alloys………………………...……………………… |
81 |
3.8.4 Melting of Aluminum-Base Alloys…………………..………………………. |
84 |
3.8.5. Melting of Magnesium-Base Alloys………………..………………………. |
85 |
3.8.6. Melting of Titanium-base Alloys……………………..………………………. |
86 |
4. METAL FORMING…………………………………………...……………………….. |
87 |
4.1. Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals of Metal Forming………………………. |
87 |
4.2. Recovery and Recrystallization……………………………...……………………… |
89 |
4.3. Technological Plasticity……………………………………..……………………… |
90 |
4.4. Heating of Metals…………………………………………...………………………. |
91 |
4.5. Rolling……………………………………………………...………………………. |
92 |
4.6. Extrusion of Metals……………………………………….………………………. |
94 |
4.7. Drawing……………………………………………………..………………………. |
95 |
4.8. Hammering………………………………………………..………………………. |
96 |
4.9. Die Forging………………………………………………….……………………… |
97 |
4.10. Stamping…………………………………………………………………………. |
101 |
5. WELDING………………………………………………………………………………….. |
103 |
5.1. The Physical Fundamentals of Welding…………………..……………………… |
103 |
5.2. Arc Welding………………………………………………….……………………… |
104 |
5.2.1. Manual Arc Welding…………………………………..………………………. |
106 |
5.2.2. Automatic Arc Welding……………………………...………………………. |
107 |
5.3. Gas Welding………………………………………………………………………. |
109 |
5.4. Resistance Welding………………………………………….……………………… |
111 |
5.4.1. Heating Fundamentals in Resistance Welding………….……………………… |
111 |
5.4.2. Spot Welding…………………………………………………………………. |
112 |
5.4.3. Seam Welding………………………………………….……………………… |
113 |
5.4.4. Projection Welding…………………………………..………………………. |
114 |
5.4.5. Flash welding………………………………………..……………………….. |
114 |
5.4.6. Upset welding………………………………………….………………………. |
115 |
5.4.7. Percussion Welding……………………………………………………………. |
115 |
5.5. Diffusion Welding…………………………………………..……………………… |
116 |
6. METAL CUTTING OPERATIONS…………………………………………………... |
117 |
6.1. Principles of Cutting and Shaping of Metals…………….…………………………. |
117 |
6.2. Geometry of a Cutting Tool………………………………...………………………. |
118 |
6.3. Cutting Speed and Chip Formation………………………………………………… |
119 |
6.4. Cutting Materials…………………………………………….………………………. |
119 |
6.5. Machine Tools Classification……………………………….……………………… |
121 |
6.6. Lathe Works………………………………………………...………………………. |
122 |
6.7. Drilling……………………………………………………..……………………… |
123 |
6.7.1. Main Operations……………………………………….……………………… |
123 |
6.7.2. Drilling machines………………………………………..……………………..... |
125 |
6.8. Planing, Shaping and Slotting…………………………………..……………………… |
127 |
6.9. Milling………………………………………………………….……………………... |
128 |
6.10. Gear - Cutting Methods……………………………………………………………... |
131 |
6.11. Grinding…………………………………………………….…………………….. |
132 |
6.12. Finishing and Microfinishing Processes in Machining of Metals………………….. |
135 |
6.13. Electrophysical and Electrochemical Machining………...……………………….. |
137 |
DICTIONARY……………………………………………………………………………. |
139 |
PREFACE……….………………………………………………..……………………. |
139 |
1. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS.....................................................……………………….. |
139 |
1.1. Classification and general properties of structural materials……………………..... |
139 |
1.2. Mechanical properties.............................................................……………………... |
140 |
1.2.1 Stress and strain.............................................................…………………….... |
140 |
1.2.2. Tension tests...............................................................................…………….. |
140 |
1.2.3. Hardness of metals...............................................……..............……………... |
141 |
1.2.4. Mechanical properties determined in dynamic tests..................…………….. |
141 |
1.3. Atomic-crystal structure of metals......................................…............…………….. |
141 |
1.3.1. General features of metals.......................................……...........…………….. |
141 |
1.3.2. Concept of crystal lattice...........................................….............…………….. |
141 |
1.3.3. Allotropic (polymorphic) transformations................….............…………….. |
142 |
1.3.4. Anisotropy of properties of metals............................….............…………….. |
142 |
1.3.5. Defects of crystal lattice............................................….............…………….. |
142 |
1.3.6. Theoretical and engineering strength of metals.........................……………... |
142 |
1.3.7. Diffusion.....................................................................................…………….. |
143 |
1.4. Solidification and metal structure………………………….................…………..... |
143 |
1.4.1. Primary crystallization of metals in solidification…..................…………….. |
143 |
1.4.2. Macro- and microstructure of metals and alloys…….................…………….. |
143 |
1.5. Phase diagrams and structure of alloys. System of iron-carbon alloys………...…... |
144 |
1.5.1. Essence and plotting of phase diagrams………………..............……………. |
144 |
1.5.2. Components and phases of iron-carbon system………..............…………….. |
145 |
1.5.3. Iron-cementite equilibrium diagram...........................................…………….. |
145 |
1.5.4. Effect of carbon and minor constituents on properties of steel…………….... |
145 |
1.6. Heat treatment of steel………………………………………..............……………. |
146 |
1.6.1. Phase transformations in iron alloys…………………...............…………….. |
146 |
1.6.2. Practice of heat treatment of steel……………………...............……………. |
147 |
1.7. Chemical heat-treatment (casehadening) of steel………….................……………. |
148 |
1.8. Classification and identification of iron-carbon alloys…….................………….... |
148 |
1.8.1. Steel…………………………………………………................…………….. |
148 |
1.8.2. Cast irons……………………………………………................…………….. |
150 |
1.9. Non-ferrous metals…………………………………………...............……………. |
150 |
2. METALLURGY……………………………………………….…..............…………...... |
151 |
2.1 Materials used in metallurgy………………………………..............…………......... |
151 |
2.2. Blast-furnace process………………………………………................…………..... |
151 |
2.3. Steel production……………………………………………................……………. |
152 |
2.3.1. Oxygen-converter process…………………………...................……………. |
152 |
2.3.2. Open-hearth process…………………………………................……………. |
152 |
2.3.3. Electric steelmaking…………………………………................…………….. |
152 |
2.3.4. Tapping and teeming of steel…………………………..............…………….. |
153 |
2.3.5. Production of high-quality and super-high-quality steel…………………….. |
153 |
2.4. Production of non-ferrous metals………………………...............………………… |
153 |
2.4.1. Production of aluminium…………………………….................……………. |
153 |
2.4.2. Production of copper…………………………………...............……………. |
154 |
2.4.3. Production of magnesium……………………………................……………. |
154 |
2.4.4. Production of titanium……………………………….................……………. |
154 |
3. FOUNDRY PRACTICE……………………………………………..............…………... |
154 |
3.1. Theoretical fundamentals of foundry………………………................………….... |
154 |
3.2. Manufacture of castings in sand moulds……………………...............………….... |
155 |
3.3. Shell-moulding process……………………………………................……………. |
156 |
3.4. Metal mould casting…………………………………………..............…………..... |
156 |
3.5. Centrifugal casting…………………………………………................…………..... |
157 |
3.6. Pressure-die casting…………………………………………..............……………. |
157 |
3.7. Investment casting…………………………………………................……………. |
157 |
3.8. Modern processes of metal production for castings……….................…………….. |
157 |
3.8.1. Cast iron production for castings................................................…………….. |
157 |
3.8.2. Steel castings production……………………………................…………….. |
158 |
3.8.3. Melting of copper-base alloys………………………................……………... |
158 |
3.8.4. Melting of aluminium-base alloys……………………..............…………….. |
158 |
4. METAL FORMING……………………………………………..............…………......... |
158 |
4.1. Physical and mechanical fundamentals of metal forming…................……………. |
158 |
4.2. Recovery and recrystallization………………………………..............………….... |
159 |
4.3. Technological plasticity……………………………………................………….... |
159 |
4.4. Heating of metals……………………………………………..............………….... |
159 |
4.5. Rolling………………………………………………………..............……………. |
159 |
4.6. Extrusion of metals…………………………………………...............……………. |
160 |
4.7. Drawing……………………………………………………................……………. |
161 |
4.8. Hammering…………………………………………………...............……………. |
161 |
4.9. Die forging…………………………………………………................………….... |
161 |
4.10. Stamping………………………………………………….................……………. |
162 |
5. WELDING……………………………………………………….…..............…………... |
162 |
5.1. Physical fundamentals of welding…………………………................……………. |
162 |
5.2. Arc welding…………………………………………………..............……………. |
163 |
5.2.1. Manual arc welding…………………………………................……………... |
163 |
5.2.2. Automatic arc welding………………………………................…………….. |
164 |
5.3. Gas welding…………………………………………………..............……………. |
164 |
5.4. Resistance welding…………………………………………...............……………. |
165 |
6. METAL CUTTING OPERATIONS………………………………..............………….... |
165 |
6.1. Principles of cutting and shaping of metals…………………..............………….... |
165 |
6.2. Geometry of a cutting tool…………………………………................………….... |
165 |
6.3. Cutting speed and chip formation………………………….................………….... |
166 |
6.4. Cutting materials……………………………………………...............………….... |
166 |
6.5. Machine tools classification…………………………………..............………….... |
167 |
6.6. Lathe works…………………………………………………...............………….... |
167 |
6.7. Drilling………………………………………………………..............………….... |
168 |
6.8. Planing, shaping and slotting………………………………................………….... |
169 |
6.9. Milling ...............................................................................…..............……………. |
169 |
6.10. Gear-cutting methods.......................................................….............…………….. |
169 |
6.11. Grinding……………………………………………………..............………….... |
169 |
6.12. Finishing and microfinishing processes in machining of metals…………………. |
170 |
6.13. Electrophysical and electrochemical machining…………................……………. |
170 |
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………...............………………….. |
172 |