4. Arrange the following words in pairs of synonyms:

shank intestines

loin torso

o esophagus chest

private parts windpipe

spine waist

trachea underarm

patella gullet

breastbone shin

thorax kneecap

bowels spinal column

armpit sternum

trunk genitals

5. Find substitutes for the following word combinations. Then use sentences of your own.

1. one of the pair of organs of respiration, situated in the chest cavity 2. a hollow muscular cone-shaped organ, lying between the lungs 3. the hard extremely dense tissue that forms the skeleton of the body 4. the part of the arm from the elbow to the wrist 5. the part of the skull that frames the mouth and holds the teeth 6. the inner part of the hand from the wrist to the base of the fingers 7. the skin covering the top of the head 8. digestive organ 9. a sac-shaped organ that stores the urine produced by the kidneys 10. the part of the body at the end of the arm 11. the thick fleshy part of the back of the leg between the ankle and the knee 12. the part of the leg between the hip and the knee in man

a. calf b. stomach c. palm d. bone e. thigh f. bladder g. hand h. scalp i. heart j. forearm k. lung l. jaw

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12

II. Reading and Comprehension

1. Read the text carefully to obtain detailed understanding of it.

Anatomy and physiology are studied to learn about body structures and their functions, respectively. The human body is a "machine" that has increasingly complex levels of organization progressing from cells to tissues, organs, organ systems and finally to the organism. The body's organ systems work together to try to maintain constant internal environment called homeostasis. Many specific terms must be used to accurately describe anatomical landmarks, location of structures, and organizational relationships among body structures.

Directional Terms

In describing the location or direction of a given point in the body, it is always assumed that the subject is in the anatomical position, that is, upright, with face front, arms at the sides with palms forward, and feet parallel. In this stance, the terms listed in Display 1 are used to designate relative position.

The frontal plane, also called the coronal plane, is made at right angles to the midline and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. The sagittal plane passes from front to back and divides the body into right and left portions. If the plane passes through the midline, it is the medial plane. The transverse plane passes horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts.

Term	Definition
anterior (ventral)	toward the front (belly) of the body
posterior (dorsal)	toward the back of the body
Medial	toward the midline of the body
Lateral	toward the side of the body
Proximal	nearer to the point of attachment or to a given reference point
Distal	farther from the point of attachment or from a given reference point
Superior	Above
Inferior	Below
cephalic (cranial)	in or relating to the head
Caudal	toward the lower end of the spine (Latin "cauda" means "tail")
superficial (external)	close to the surface of the body
deep (internal)	close to the center of the body

Display 1. Directional Terms

Body Cavities

Internal organs are located within dorsal and ventral cavities (Figure 1). The dorsal cavity contains the brain in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity (canal). The uppermost ventral space, the thoracic cavity, is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. There is no anatomical separation between the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity, which together make up the abdominopelvic cavity. The large membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs within it is the peritoneum.

Figure 1. Side view of the body cavities

Body Regions

For orientation, the abdomen can be divided by imaginary lines into nine regions, which are shown in Figure 2.

The sections down the midline are:

• the epigastric region, located above the stomach;

• the umbilical region, named for the umbilicus, or navel;

• the hypogastric region, located below the stomach.

The lateral regions are:

• the right and left hypochondriac regions, named for their position near the ribs, specifically near the cartilages of the ribs;

• the right and left lumbar regions, which are located near the small of the back (the lumbar region of the spine);

• the right and left iliac regions, named for the upper bone of the hip, the ilium. These regions are also called the inguinal regions, with reference to the groin.

Figure 2. Nine regions of the body

The principal parts of the human body are: the head, the neck, the trunk and the limbs (extremities).

Head

The brain is inside the head, which is responsible for thinking. It has the cranial and facial parts. The top of the scalp is covered with hair. There is the forehead beneath the hairline at the front of the face. Underneath the forehead we can find the eyes for seeing, the nose for smelling, and the mouth for eating. The lips are on the outside of the mouth, and on the inside of the mouth there are the teeth for biting and the tongue for tasting. Food is swallowed down the throat. At the sides of the face there are the cheeks and at the sides of the head there are the ears for hearing. The chin is at the bottom of the face. The jaw is located on the inside of the cheeks and chin.

Neck

The neck is what attaches the head to the upper body. It contains the cervical vertebrae, the pharynx, the larynx and important vessels and nerves.

Upper Body

At the top and front of the upper body, just below the neck we can find the collar bone. On the front side of the upper body there is the chest (thorax), which in women includes the breasts. The principal parts of the thorax are the lungs for breathing, the heart for pumping blood, the great blood vessels, the trachea (windpipe) and oesophagus (gullet), the dorsal spine, the ribs and the sternum (breastbone). There are the stomach and the waist (loins) beneath the ribcage. The navel, more commonly referred to as the belly button, is located here as well. The rear side of the upper body is called the back, inside which the spine connects the upper body to the lower body.

Upper Limbs (arms)

The arms are attached to the shoulders. Beneath, this area is called the armpit or underarm. The upper arms have the muscles known as triceps and biceps. The joint halfway down the arm is called the elbow. Between the elbow and the next joint, the wrist, there is the forearm. The hand with four fingers and one thumb is below the wrist. Beside the thumb we can find the index finger. Beside the index finger there is the middle finger, followed by the ring finger and the little finger. At the ends of the fingers there are the finger-tips and fingernails with their whitish half-moons.

Lower Body

The hips are below the waist, on the left and right. Between the hips there are the external reproductive organs (genitals) or private parts, the penis (male) or the vagina (female). At the back of the lower body we can find the buttocks for sitting on. They are also commonly referred to as the rear end or the bum (especially with children). The internal organs in the lower body include the stomach, the intestines (the small and large intestines) or bowels for digesting food, the bladder for holding liquid waste, as well as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen and kidneys. This area also contains the woman's uterus, which holds a baby when a woman is pregnant.

Lower Limbs (legs)

The lower extremity is attached to the pelvic girdle. The top of the leg is called the thigh, and the joint in the middle of the leg is the knee. It is protected by the patella or kneecap. The front of the lower leg is the shin and the back of the lower leg is the calf. The ankle connects the foot to the leg. The foot itself consists of the sole, the ball of the foot, the dorsum, the arches and the heel with strong Achilles tendon and the toes. Each foot has five toes. The smallest toe is often called the little toe while the large one is called the big toe. There are toenails at the ends of the toes. Systems of the Human Body

The following are the principal systems of the human body and their essential life functions:

Circulatory system: pumping and channelling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood and blood vessels.

Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum and anus.

Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenals or adrenal glands.

Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails.

Lymphatic system: consists of organs, ducts, and nodes. It transports a watery clear fluid called lymph. This fluid distributes immune cells and other factors throughout the body. It also interacts with the blood circulatory system to drain fluid from cells and tissues. The lymphatic system contains immune cells called lymphocytes, which protect the body against antigens (viruses, bacteria, etc.) that invade the body.

Immune system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus and spleen.

Muscular system: movement with muscles.

Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and nerves.

Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis.

Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, i.e. the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm.

Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones, cartilages, ligaments and tendons.

Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine.