Corollary 1.1: Motivation springs from within; it can be sparked, but not imposed from without

There is a misconception among some teachers that it is their task to "motivate" their students. "My students are completely unmotivated," they complain. Corpses and mummies are "completely unmotivated," but every living being is motivated. One student may be motivated to get through each language class with the least personal hassle, while acquiring the barest minimum of the language compatible with not flunking out; another may be motivated to get high grades by supplying what the teacher or some testing agency seems to be seeking on tests; yet another may be motivated to learn a subset of skills or a distinctive vocabulary to achieve personal goals, which may not be those of the course or the teacher. Motivation, strong or weak, is always there. It is the task of the teacher to discover the springs of motivation in individual students and channel it in the direction of further language acquisition through course content, activities in and out of the classroom, and learner-generated or at least learner-maintained projects (see also Principle 2). Frequently the intrinsic attraction of the subject matter and the interest aroused by classroom interaction will spark motivation to persist with language learning, and this will continue until a degree of language control satisfying to the learner has been attained.[6]

It is noticeable that language learning motivation waxes and wanes as students feel they can operate in the language sufficiently to satisfy their immediate needs or presently perceived longer term objectives. It is for this reason that, although adults and adolescents learn a language faster in the short run than young children, they are more easily satisfied with what they can do with it than younger learners who, wishing to be accepted by their peers and succeed in a new environment, persist to a higher level of control over the long haul.[7] It is for the teacher to find ways of restimulating the motivation of older learners by opening up new vistas of potentiality. Sometimes external factors do this for us and the student's interest and enthusiasm rekindle. Hence the number of older learners who return to language study in the ir adult years.[8 ]

Principle 2: Language learning and teaching are shaped by student needs and objectives in particular circumstances

Student needs and objectives are not just personal. They are shaped to a considerable degree by societal pressures, political exigencies, and parental expectations influenced by these two. Social forces and community-wide perceptions, whether reflecting reality or merely hopes and fears, exert a largely subconscious influence on what are perceived as individual choices. One such subtle influence is that of perceived career opportunities for the language learner; these change over time, as economies and political alliances shift in emphasis, and this affects demand for particular languages. Another influence is the growing importance in public perception of certain speech communities at a particular point in time: Should our students be learning Japanese or Chinese, for instance, instead of German; or Spanish or Italian instead of French? Is it pointless and time-wasting for English speakers to learn any other language at this particular period of history when students all over the world are clamoring to learn English? Despite any rationale we may present, it is factors such as these that are influencing student decisions and attitudes. From another perspective, should we be emphasizing oral skills, or are reading and writing of growing interest to our students in this age of the Internet and the World Wide Web? What about listening and cross-cultural skills in an age of so much mutual misunderstanding? These are some of the kinds of decisions that confront us, which can only be resolved in a particular context.

It is imperative in the present period of rapid change that language teachers study carefully the language learners in their classes _ their ages, backgrounds, aspirations, interests, goals in language learning, aptitude for language acquisition in a formal setting, and opportunities for language use outside of the classroom (see Principle 10) _ and then design language courses and language teaching materials that meet the needs of specific groups. "One size fits all" is not applicable in our work. A needs analysis must come first, before decisions are made on orientation and content of courses, and this will affect the way the language will be presented and the types of materials that will be incorporated. Such a needs analysis must be repeated in each new circumstance, and also as cohorts of students change in what may seem to be a stable context.

In all language teaching decisions, the question Who? (Who are my students?) precedes What? (What kind of course or learning materials do they need?), and these two determine How? (What approach and which techniques are most appropriate in this situation?)