VI. Render the following sentences in English using the Subjunctive Mood in the Conditional sentences

1. Если бы давление оставалось постоянным, ничего бы не случилось.

2. Если бы не высокотемпературные материалы, металлурги не произвели бы высококачественную сталь.

3. Если бы металл нагревался медленно, его свойства были бы другими.

4. Если бы не метеорологические станции, ученые были бы не в состоянии наблюдать за образованием и движением облаков.

5. Если результаты прошлых испытаний были бы успешными, экономические преимущества этого метода были бы реализованы.

6. Если бы он сейчас был свободен, он помог бы вам провести этот эксперимент.

7. Я бы не понял, какой это хороший прибор, если бы не видел его в действии.

8. Они бы закончили вчера эту работу вовремя при условии, что у них был весь необходимый материал.

9. Если бы не было космических станций, космические корабли не смогли бы достичь других планет.

10. Если бы эти эксперименты были проведены, они показали бы нам еще раз, что между молекулами газа существует очень маленькое притяжение.

UNIT VII

STEP 1.

РОЛЬ КОНТЕКСТА ПРИ ПЕРЕВОДЕ

Контекст – это фрагмент текста, включающий выбранную для анализа единицу, необходимый и достаточный для анализа этой единицы. Различаются два вида контекста – собственно лингвистический и экстралингвистический. Последний включает в себя условия общения, предметный ряд, самих коммуникантов. Контекст играет большую роль при переводе. Например, многие слова являются многозначными, и определить их значения можно только в определенном контексте:

Polar bear is one of the most dangerous animals.

Полярный медведь является одним из самых опасных животных.

I cаn’t bear the tobacco smell.

Я не могу выносить запах табака.

Задача переводчика состоит в том, чтобы сделать выбор такого соответствия иностранному слову, которое наиболее точно передает значение этого слова в данном контексте. При этом необходимо иметь в виду, что иногда ни один из словарных эквивалентов не подходит к данному контексту, а приобретает в нем другое значение. Задача переводчика состоит в том, чтобы подыскать нужный вариант.

Опираясь на контекст, можно понять значение незнакомых слов:

- в контекстах со словами, противоположными по смыслу:

Street cafes usually have plastic dishes: they are unbreakable; the ordinary ones are too fragile.

• в контекстах со словами, схожими по смыслу:

Why are you so timorous? There is nothing to be afraid of.

• в контекстах, предусматривающих так называемый «здравый смысл» - общие знания, эрудицию, жизненный опыт:

The microscope is of the utmost importance in the study of biology because it can magnify objects too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Микроскоп имеет огромное значение при изучении биологии, так как он может увеличивать многие объекты, невидимые невооруженным глазом.

If you are late for the employment interview, your chance of getting the job will be in serious jeopardy.

Если вы опоздаете на собеседование, ваши шансы получить работу будут поставлены под угрозу.

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian without a dictionary. Determine the meaning of the italicized words by using the context method.

1. We could not find the necessary papers because the laboratory was in disorder.

2. Sound cannot be conducted in a vacuum because there are no air waves to transmit it.

3. Rain in the Sahara Desert is a rarity.

4. If some of the tasks seem complicated, I will explain them to you.

5. At one point of his report the speaker digressed to tell us about the previous experiments, but then he got right back to his topic.

6. Should the new buisiness prove lucrative, many investors will enter it.

7. Before the new hotel can be constructed, the two old buildings now on the site will have to be demolished.

8. He was the only one who gave an extemporaneous talk, all other speakers gave memorized reports.

9. Not a single civilian was appointed to the dictator’s cabinet. All the posts were given to military officers.

10. In some offices work comes to a halt at noon and does not resume until 1 p.m.

11. Choosing a career is a matter that calls for reflection, but I haven’t yet given it enough thought.

12. Albert Einstein proposed that light is transmitted as tiny particles, or photons.

13. Energy is released by the fission of atomic nuclei.

14. An alloy is a fusion of two or more metals that makes a stronger metal.

15. When there is a disparity between test results, the test should be repeated.

16. Tropical climates are characterized by a high frequency of rainfall.

В процессе работы над словом или словосочетанием переводчик занимается не только нахождением их эквивалентов, но также и лексическими и грамматическими преобразованиями. Например, возможно делать некоторые опущения, не меняя при этом общий смысл предложения. Опущения делаются для того, чтобы не нарушать нормы родного языка, например, в случае парных синонимов, характерных для английского текста, или семантически избыточных слов.

The treaty was pronounced null and void.

Договор был признан недействительным.

В ряде случаев возможны контекстуальные замены (замена слов иностранного языка словами родного языка, не являющимися словарными эквивалентами), которые диктуются особенностями контекста. Существуют следующие виды словарных замен:

- конкретизация – замена иностранного слова с более широким значением на родное слово с более узким значением:

Exact fare, please!

Передавайте без сдачи, пожалуйста! (обращение кондуктора в автобусе)

How are things?

Как успехи?

I want to look into the thing myself.

Я сам хочу разобраться в этом деле.

- генерализация – замена слова с более узким значением на слово с более широким значением.

The detective searched every inch of the ground.

Следователь осмотрел каждый сантиметр (клочок) земли.

- антонимический перевод – замена утвердительной конструкции отрицательной, или, наоборот, при этом лексическая единица иностранного языка меняется на ее антоним в русском языке:

When you leave the laboratory, remember to switch off the electricity.

Когда вы уходите из лаборатории, не забудьте отключить электричество.

Как говорилось в предыдущих главах, грамматический строй английского и русского языков отличаются, поэтому при переводе возможны замены частей речи и членов предложения:

I am no dancer, but I like watching her dance.

Я сам не танцую, но люблю смотреть, как танцует эта девушка.

I was offered another job.

Мне предложили другую работу.

В сложном предложении могут происходить следующие замены, что диктуется различным синтаксическим строем двух языков:

- замена простого предложения сложным:

Their experiment is reported to have been successfully completed.

Сообщают, что их эксперимент успешно закончился.

- замена сложного предложения несколькими простыми, или объединение простых предложений в одно сложное:

When a substance is heated, the molecules move faster, which causes that substance to feel hot.

Когда вещество нагревают, молекулы движутся быстрее. Это приводит к тому, что вещество становится горячим.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian and explain all lexical, grammatical and syntactical transformations you have made in your translation:

1. Tin does not rust when exposed to air.

2. Clouds usually form in the cool upper air.

3. When a noise is made, the sound waves travel outward in a circle.

4. Chapter 10 discusses some general considerations with regard to the evidence collected in support of this hypothesis.

5. Canada is one of the world’s largest exporters of non-ferrous metals. Nickel and cobalt come from the vast Sudbury mines of Ontario while cobalt is produced mostly in Northern Ontario.

6. Otto Carlsberg came to the USA from Europe as a well-known author of a brilliant book on physical chemistry. A book was written by him in Harvard but never published until 1951.

7. When a theory explains or unifies a great deal of information, it becomes known as a principle, for example Archimedes’ principle of water displacements.

8. Oxygen causes metals to corrode, wood to rot, gasoline to burn, and iron to rust.

9. In certain places of the Middle East, there were times when coffee drinking was punishable by death, which probably was not enough to persuade some people to give up their morning cup.

10. Although many scientists studied motion, it was the great Sir Isaak Newton who formulated the theories of motion, veryfying and extending the earlier work of Gallileo and Copernicus.

11. Newton’s laws are applicable everywhere in the universe and synthesize both vertical and horizontal motion.

12. Conduction is one method of heat transfer that takes place when there is a difference between two objects.

13. Matter, like energy, can be converted from one form into another but neither be created nor destroyed.

14. Einstein’s theory proved to be valid in 1939, when it was discovered that enormous amounts of energy could be released by splitting uranium atoms, a process called fission.

15. Atomic research has led to the development of artificially prepared manmade elements, such as einsteinium, fermium, californium and berkelium.

16. A lot of time and money is being spent on volts wagons because of the possible fuel shortage.

17. Under conditions of intense heat, such as are found at the centre of the sun, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms, the transformation process known as fusion.

18. Just as the watch spring needs to be released to do the work moving the hands, the energy stored in food molecules needs to be released by enzymes or substances in the body, and the energy stored in gasoline must be released by the spark plug to do its work of propelling the car forward.

Exercise 3. Translate the following passages into Russian and explain your choice of Russian equivalents for the italicised words.

1. White light results from mixing of the wavelengths of all colours. Sir Isaak Newton discovered that when sunlight passed through a glass prism, the white light dispersed into a spectrum of coloured light. Newton then allowed the spectrum to pass through a second prism and the colours recombined, producing a beam of white light. This simple experiment demonstrated that white light contains all the colours of the spectrum. A beautiful and dramatic example of this occurs when sunlight falls on drops of water in the air after the rain. The beam of white sunlight spatters into a rainbow of colours.

2. It is a matter of common knowledge that there is a chemical which is commonly used by both a common man and the chemist, the former knowing it as common salt and the latter as sodium chloride.

3. Environmental pollution is a major challenge to mankind now. It can be met only by the joint efforts of all advanced countries, for the problem challenges man in all his activities on a global scale.

Exercise 4. The following groups of sentences have the same italicized words. Translate them into Russian paying attention to the context.

1. I don’t know where Atlanta is. Geography is not my best subject.

To harden the metal it was subjected to intense heat.

The subject of my diploma paper is powder metallurgy.

His work in France is a temporary one. He is a subject of Great Britain.

2. A compound is a substance that is made of two or more elements that cannot be separated by mechanical means.

She does not have any means for living because she has no job right now.

From the standpoint of the modern physics of plastic deformation of crystals the

appearance of collective forms of motion means the appearance of rotary modes of

plasticity in crystals.

3. The present paper continues the discussion started at the last conference.

For the present the data obtained in the course of experiments cannot be used being

incomplete.

The results of his research were presented at the seminar.

She was presented with a diamond pendant for her birthday.

All members of the club were present at the meeting.

4. Taking notes is a challenging task.

The problem of hydrodynamics is a permanent challenge for mathematicians.

In his response Dr Bern challenged the accuracy of the results of the last experiment

carried out by American scientists.

Researchers at the University of Maryland published a report that says inaction in responding

the challenges of climate change in the US will cost billions of dollars.

5.The context is a guide to the meaning of words.

While one of the crew remains in orbit, two astronauts guide the Lunar Module

to a soft landing.

The guide showed us around London.

6.The sound of the counter is a measure of the film thickness.

You should take special measures to avoid a breakdown.

Distance in outer space is measured in light years.

7.Information theory aroused considerable interest among intellectuals.

These shares pay the best interest.

Существует ряд компьютерных программ (PROMPT, LT PLATINUM, LT GOLD и др)., с помощью которых можно перевести тексты с одного языка на другой. Однако все они несовершенны, т.к. машина не учитывает особенности строя языка, контекст. Иногда машинный перевод так искажает смысл текста, что отредактировать его практически невозможно. Предлагаем вам отрывки текстов разных жанров (отрывок из биографического очерка о Джеке Лондоне; отрывок из сказки и кулинарный рецепт) и их переводы с помощью компьютерной программы. Сравните оригинал и перевод. Сделайте свой собственный перевод.

But on this day something unusual happened, on this day the fisherman caught the Golden Fish. The Golden Fish begged for the fisherman to spare his life, and offered in return to grant the fisherman any wish he would like. But the kindhearted fisherman asked for nothing, and returned the Golden Fish to the sea. However, the fisherman's wife was not so kindhearted, she became irate when he related the story to her, and sent him back to the sea to catch the Golden Fish and to wish for a loaf of bread. The fisherman did as he was told, he caught the fish and wished for a loaf of bread. When he returned home he found a fresh baked loaf of bread on the table.	Но в этот день кое-что необычное случилось, в этот день, рыбак поймал Золотую Рыбу. Золотая Рыба, которую просят рыбака, чтобы сэкономить его жизнь, и предложила взамен предоставлять рыбаку любое желание, которое он хотел бы. Но мягкосердечный рыбак, у которого спрашивают ни о чем, и не возвратил Золотую Рыбу к морю. Однако жена рыбака не была настолько мягкосердечна, она стала сердитой, когда он связал историю с нею, и послал ему назад морю, чтобы поймать Золотую Рыбу и желать ломтя хлеба. Рыбак сделал, поскольку ему говорили, он поймал рыбу и желал ломтя хлеба.
In 1901 London ran unsuccessfully on the Socialist party ticket for mayor of Oakland. He started to steadily produce novels, nonfiction and short stories, becoming in his lifetime one of the most popular authors. London's first novel, The Son Of The Wolf , appeared in 1900. His Alaska stories, The Call Of The Wild (1903), in which a giant pet dog Buck finds his survival instincts in Yukon, White Fang (1906) and Burning Daylight (1910) gained a large reading public. Among his other works are The Sea-Wolf (1904) and The Road , a collection of short stories. In 1902 London went to England, where he studied the living conditions in East End and working class areas of the capital city. His report about the economic degradation of the poor, The People Of The Abyss (1903), was a surprise success in the U.S. but criticized in England. In 1906, he published his first collection of non-fiction pieces, The War Of The Classes , which included his lectures on socialism. London also published a semi-autobiographical novel Martin Eden (1909) and a travel book The Cruise of the Snark (1911).	. В 1901 Лондон бежал неудачно на Социалистическом партийном билете для мэра Окленда. Он начал устойчиво производить романы, научную литературу и рассказы, становящиеся в его целой жизни один из самых популярных авторов. Первый роман Лондона, Сын Волка, появился в 1900. Его истории Аляски, Зов природы (1903), в котором гигантский любимый Доллар собаки находит его инстинкты выживания в Юконе, Белый Клык (1906) и Горящий Дневной свет (1910), получили большую читающую публику. Среди его других работ - Полосатая зубатка (1904) и Дорога, собрание рассказов. В 1902 Лондон пошел в Англию, где он изучил условия жизни в Ист-Энде и области рабочего класса столицы. Его сообщение об экономической деградации бедных, Люди Пропасти (1903), было успехом удивления в США, но критиковало в Англии. В 1906, он издал его первое собрание частей научной литературы, война Классов, которые включали его лекции по социализму. Лондон также издал полуавтобиографический роман, Мартин Эден (1909) и путешествие заказывает Круиз Snark (1911)
Hamburger Steaks INGREDIENTS: 2 pounds lean ground beef 1/2 cup finely chopped onion 1 egg, lightly beaten 2 egg yolks, lightly beaten salt and pepper to taste 6 tablespoons butter 3 tablespoons dry red wine or good quality brandy PREPARATION: In a large bowl, combine and blend the ground beef, chopped onion, beaten egg and egg yolks, salt, and pepper. Mold the meat mixture into six 1/2-inch thick oblong steaks. In a large skillet, heat 3 tablespoons butter over medium-high brown on both sides, until insides are just barely pink or no longer pink. Transfer to a hot serving dish. Add the remaining butter and the wine or brandy to the frying pan, and simmer until most of the liquid has evaporated. Spoon over the steaks and serve.	КОМПОНЕНТЫ Стейков Гамбургера: 2-фунтовый скудный говяжий фарш 1/2 чашка точно расколол лук 1 яйцо, слегка которое бьют 2 яичных желтка, слегка избитая соль и перец, чтобы испытать 6 нефть столовых ложек, 3 столовых ложки сушат красное вино или ПОДГОТОВКУ бренди хорошего качества: В большом шаре, объедините и смешайте говяжий фарш, расколол лук, избитое яйцо и яичные желтки, соль, и перец. Формуйте смесь мяса в шесть 1/2-inch толстых продолговатых стейков. В большой неглубокой сковороде, нагрейте 3 нефти столовых ложек по среднему-высокому коричневому цвету с обеих сторон, пока внутренности не являются только едва розовыми или больше розовыми. Перейдите к горячему блюду обслуживания. Добавьте остающуюся нефть и вино или бренди к сковороде, и кипите, пока большинство жидкости не испарилось. Ложка по стейкам и подаче.

STEP 2.

Prepositions. Conjunctions. Connective words and word-combinations.

Translation of chain attributes.

В научно-технических текстах наиболее употребительными предлогами являются:

according to – согласно;

after – после;

as to – что касается, относительно;

before – перед; до;

but – кроме;

by means of – посредством; при помощи;

by virtue of – посредством;

despite - несмотря на;

due to – благодаря; в силу; из-за;

for - для; в течение; из-за; за;

in accordance with - в соответствии с;

in addition to – кроме; в дополнение к;

in case – в случае, если;

in spite of – несмотря на;

instead of – вместо;

on account of – по причине; из-за;

owing to – благодаря;

since – с;

thanks to – благодаря;

with respect to – по отношению к;

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the prepositions.

1. Some scientific theories existed long before they were proved to be true or false.

2. According to the law of the conservation of energy, the useful work done by a machine is less than the total work performed by it.

3. Motion means change of place or position with respect to the motion of some other object that we assume as being at rest.

4. Since the release of the potential energy of the atomic nucleus the mankind has entered the atomic age.

5. As we know, this hypothesis has not been proven.

6. In spite of all efforts at improvement, this method did not turn to be productive.

7. Owing to the rapidity of the expansion, the steam has no time to condense but remains in an unnatural dry or superheated state.

8. I can see nothing but the black cloud of smoke.

9. After the blast furnace the molten iron is poured into the conductor.

Наиболее употребительными простыми и составными союзами являются:

after – после того как

as - так как; в то время как; как; когда

as well as - так же как (и);

as long as – как только;

before - прежде чем;

both … and …

but – но, а;

but for - если бы не;

either … or – или … или;

for – так как;

neither … nor – ни … ни;

not only … but (also) – не только, но (также);

since – так как;

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the conjunctions.

1. Before going further let us be sure we understand this rule.

2. There is no flow of electrons since the electric current was broken.

3. They will go there either by car or by bus.

4. The tour­ists were both tired and thirsty as it was very hot and the road was rather bad.

5. Excavators as well as lorries were brought to the construction site. 4. Neither wind nor rain could stop the work

6. The steam engine could not be set in motion for the steam pipe was damaged.

7. This engineer has worked at the plant since 1980.

8. In some cases friction should be taken into consideration, however small it may be, and however insignificant its results.

9. The trans­former cannot be called a machine as it has no moving parts.

10. Unless you oil the moving parts regularly, they will soon wear out.

11. As long as the system of traffic control remains unchanged the safety problem will not be solved.

12. As soon as everything was ready the signal was given to start the testing. 13. Strike the iron while it is hot. (a proverb).

13. Although the bridge is a small structure its economic importance sometimes is very great.

14. Not only listeners follow what is being said, but also they pay attention to body language.

Кроме того, в научно-технических тестах широко используются слова-связки. Вот некоторые случаи их употребления:

Для выражения обобщения:

on the whole – в целом;

in general - в общем

usually – обычно

сurrently – в настоящее время

Currently no one is sure what the density of the universe is.

В настоящее время никто не знает плотность Вселенной.

On the whole I fully agree with you.

В целом я с вами полностью согласен.

Для выражения противопоставления:

however – однако;

on the other hand – с другой стороны;

nevertheless – тем не менее;

on another point – с другой стороны; с другой точки зрения;

Nevertheless, if nutrinos have even a tiny mass, there are enough of them to determine the density of the universe.

Тем не менее, если нейтрины имеют даже малую массу, их достаточно,

чтобы определить плотность Вселенной.

However, the industrial innovations did transform Britain into a very rich and powerful nation.

Однако нововведения в промышленности действительно превратили Британию в очень богатую и сильную державу.

Для выражения очевидности происходящего:

clearly – ясно; очевидно;

obviously – очевидно;

as a matter of fact – фактически; в сущности; собственно (говоря);

As a matter of fact, Britain had lost much of its international economic influence by the beginning of the XX century.

Фактически Британия утратила свое международное экономическое влияние к началу ХХ века.

Для выделения важности происходящего:

above all – прежде всего;

in particular – в особенности;

especially – особенно;

Above all I would like to draw your attention to the latest results.

Прежде всего я хотел бы обратить ваше внимание на последние результаты.

Приводя пример:

for example – например;

for instance – например;

В английском предложении очень часто в роли определения, кроме прилагательного причастия и притяжательного местоимения, могут выступать существительное (иногда цепочка существительных) и инфинитив.

a town library – городская библиотека

a steam engine car – автомобиль с паровым двигателем

the theory to be considered – теория, которую надо рассмотреть

Если определение выражено инфинитивом (обычно в пассивной форме), то на русский язык оно переводится придаточным определительным предложением с оттенком будущности и долженствования.

The material to be tested has been carefully examined.

Вещество, которое должно быть испытано, было тщательно исследовано.

Обратите внимание на различие в переводе определений, если они выражены страдательным причастием (Participle II) и инфинитивом.

the problem discussed – обсужденная проблема

the problem to be discussed – проблема, которую надо обсудить

Если между артиклем и существительным, к которому он относится, стоит несколько существительных (иногда существительные с прилагательными), они образуют цепочку определений, а существительное, к которому относится артикль, является по отношению к ним опорным. С него рекомендуется начинать перевод цепочки определений.

the car speed calculation problem - проблема вычисления скорости автомобиля

Exercise 1. Translate the following words combinations into Russian:

the land transport improvement, the Moscow underground problems, the high-quality steel, the thermo-electric generator development, the arch bridge construction site, the research program results, the temperature limit determination, the deep sea current measuring device, traffic noise reduction problem, rubber and glass components, air-cushion vehicle advantages, two decade development plan.

Exercise 2. Translate the following word-combinations into Russian

The data analyzed - the data to be analyzed;

The lessons learned – the lessons to be learned;

The choice made – the choice to be made;

The factor taken into consideration – the factor to be taken into consideration;

The problem solved – the problem to be solved;

The idea suggested – the idea to be suggested;

The distinction made – the distinction to be made

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the attributes in italics:

1. The technique of collecting information will differ according to the problem to be solved.

2. Another factor taken into consideration is the power of modern experimental techniques.

3. The rate of our knowledge growth will surely increase in the years to come.

4. Large tires to be tested were brought to the city inspection department.

5. The automobile petrol engine tested in the laboratory is regarded as the most promising engine prospect.

6. This alloy covered material can be pressed and painted in virtually the same way as steel.

7. The alloy to be tested is claimed to have characteristics that make it perfect for use at low temperature.

8. The cooling system, proposed by the designers proved to be inefficient.

9. The improved cooling system to be devised will prevent the engine from destroying.

10. Energy crises resulted in the development of less fuel consumption engine.

STEP 3.

Revision exercises.

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the Passive Voice. Give several variants if possible.

1. Under conditions of intense heat, such as are found at the center of the sun, hydrogene atoms combine to form helium atoms.

2. Liquid copper and nickel are poured into panel-shaped moulds, then dipped in acid baths and further refined using electrolysis. The rich slime that forms at the bottom of electrolysis baths is gathered up, and from these dregs palladium and platinum are reclaimed as well as zink, cobalt and lead.

3. Although a hypothesis usually develops from the intuition of the scientist, it is based on observations or facts. As evidence is gathered to support a hypotheis and it becomes accepted in the scientific world, it is referred to as theory, for example the theory of relativity.

4. With allowance for the fact that the main contribution to the evolution of structure in thermomechanical treatment is made by plastic deformation, the changes occurring at this or that structural level due to thermomechanical treatment will be considered in this article.

5. The retained austenite content and carbon distribution in martensite were determined as a function of cooling rate and temper temperature for this steel.

6. Today various variants of high temperature thermomechanical treatment and controlled rolling have been developed primarily for sheets and, to a less degree, for rolled shapes.

7. Austronauts experience weightlessness on the way to the moon because they are not close enough to be affected by the gravitational pull of the earth or the moon.

8. Many processes at this plant are fully or at least semi automated and industrial robots are now routinely being used in fabrication shops for operations like welding.

9. The fact that electrons are being emitted does not increase the density because the electrons emitted from the cathode are repelled back to it.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the verbals. Explain your translation.

1. A bell rung in vacuum makes no sound.

2. Glass is fragile or breakable. A glass bottle dropped on a hard`surface is likely to break.

3. By persuing best practices you are able to see how an organization functions and where the worst practices are, and that’s typically where the greatest opportunities are for improvement.

4. First Newton studied the quality of inertia, or the quality of a body to resist change in its state of motion or direction.

5. Gallileo demonstrated that a body pushed on a smooth surface could go much further than a body pushed on a rough surface.

6. Foreign students who are not native speakers of English must document their proficiency of English by taking one of the internationally recognized tests: TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) or ELTS (English Language Testing Service).

7. As already mentioned, admission standards at the University are very competitive, and just the most qualified applicants are considered for admission.

8. Language is thought to be a function of the left side of the brain.

9. The primary objective of the present spectral studies is to determine the retained austenite content as a function of cooling rate and temper temperature.

10. New advanced methods of the products and elevating the combination of specified plastic forming are developed and the old methods are improved with the aim of lowering the cost of the products and elevating the combination of specified process and operating properties

11. To synthesize a human voice, the computer vibrates a speaker cone to try to simulate the acoustical wave patterns produced by the human voice. This approach seems to be understandable.

12. However, development of the methods of analytical transmission electron microscopy and intensification of the research of imperfect structures in strongly deformed crystals have shown to be adequate only in the initial stages of deformation.

13. With growth in the degree of deformation all the levels mentioned above are involved progressively.

14. Steels subjected to hot temperature mechanical treatment soften with growth in the temperature to a lesser degree than steels subjected to conventional heat treatment (quenching).

15. In alloys undergoing phase transformations the kinetics of structure formation is more complex but its main feature is inheritance of the dislocation structure of the deformed alloy by the forming stage.

16. We will use this approach for considering the role of plastic strain in the process of the formation of structure, mechanical, and other properties in thermomechanical treatment.

17. A bell struck in a vacuum, no sound can be heard.

18. Captured carbon dioxide can be transported by pipeline up to several hundred kilometers to suitable geologic storage sites and subsequent subterranean storage with the pressure produced while capturing.

19. The concept of universal gravity was the greatest contribution of Isaak Newton, the man many consider to be one of the greatest thinkers of all time.

20. Steel construction has always delivered benefits, providing the basis for everything from fully finished modules through light steel framing for housing, strip steel for cladding and roofing to hot roll sections and plates for the largest buildings and bridges.

21. John Dalton thought the atoms to be solid.

22. Electrons are known to be kept in their paths by the force of attraction between the protons and the electrons.

Exercise 3. Define the prefixes or suffixes of the italicized words. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. The old ways of thinking are totally irrelevant today.

2. Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless gas that makes up 80 per cent of the air.

3. In general, martenistic transformations are diffusionless and replacive with respect to substitutional elements.

4. Defects of atomic level have sizes little exceeding the interatomic spacing in all the three dimensions.

5. The dislocation density increases monotonically with growth in degree of the deformation

6. The formation of substructure in thermomechanical treatment of metallic materials determines the level of their physical, mechanical, process and service properties.

7. The structure observed in the intense magnetic sextets indicates that these spectra consist of several overlapping, partially resolved, component sextets.

8. Light energy can be transformed into heat energy.

9. The lecture was extended one hour to allow time for questions.

10. When the bottle was uncapped, all the pressure inside was released.

11. Macronucleus is a large, dense nucleus.

12. Sound cannot be absorbed in a vacuum because there are no air waves to transmit it.

13. The submarine was completely submerged in the water and could not be seen.

14. In the process of plastic deformation the microstructure evolves in a regular way.

15. During this experiment the dislocation density starts to increase monotonically.

16. Petrol consumption increases rap­idly when a vehicle cannot move at the most economical speed.

17. Coal’s market price may be low, but the true costs of its extraction, processing and consumption are high.

Exercise 4. Translate into Russian paying attention to modal verbs.

1. Elements are the basic substances that cannot be decomposed or broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.

2. The radiation monitoring devices should be calibrated regularly.

3. The development of atomic energy demonstrates that matter can be converted into energy.

4. Just as the watch spring needs to be released to do the work of moving the hands, the energy stored in gasoline must be released by the spark plug to do its work of propelling the car forward.

5. The off site manufacture of constructional steelwork means that work can be executed to far higher standards of accuracy than can be achieved with gangs of subcontracted labour on site wet trades, minimizing waste to a greater extent than can be achieved by alternative methods.

6. Modern alloys must be lighter, stronger and more corrosive-resistant to suit automated fabrication.

7. It must be borne in mind that all rules may have exceptions.

8. He may have got the article he looked for.

9. The project was so expensive that it could not be continued.

10. These discussions might often help to solve the problems more sufficiently.

11. In our day, the speed of aircraft, even passenger planes, is approaching 3,000 kilometres per hour, loads may be as high as 600 hundred kilograms per square metre of wing. The turbine that drives such an aircraft is not only a miracle of design, it can also be considered as a miracle of materials strength.

12. The given examples are sufficient to indicate the complexity of materials studies today and the extent to which advances in the near or more distant future may depend on them.

Exercise 5. Define the type of the Subjunctive Mood. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. If the air were pure oxygen, smoking would be impossible.

2. If you traveled to the moon, the mass of your body would be precisely the same but your weight would be less, due to the proportionally smaller size of the moon.

3. If a liquid were heated sufficiently it would boil and convert to a gas.

4. If better equipment were available, we could achieve much better results.

5. Should those experiments be made they would confirm our hypothesis.

6. Had you more information about his latest project you could offer your help.

7. It is necessary that you should know that the selection of the proper metal or alloy for a given use is an important part of the practice in metallurgy. If the plates are charged plus and minus, the crystal acts as if it were compressed by a great pressure.

8. In addition and substraction of decimal fractions the figures must be so placed that the decimal points come under each other; the operation can then be carried out just as if one were dealing with whole numbers.

9. Should humanity take prompt action to strictly limit the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere when consuming coal to make electricity, we would have little chance of gaining control over global warming.

SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS FOR HOME-READING

Translate the following texts into Russian. Analyze lexical and grammatical difficulties. Identify the connections and connective words. Make all possible syntactical transformations.

TEXT I

The word «scientist» was introduced only in 1840 by a Cambrige professor of philosophy who wrote: «We need a name for des­cribing a cultivator of science in general. I should be inclined to call him a scientist». «The cultivators of science» before that time were known as «natural philosophers». They were curious, often eccentric, persons who poked inquiring fingers at nature. In the process of doing so they started a technique of inquiry which is now referred to as the «scientific method».

Briefly, the following steps can be distinguished in this method. First comes the thought that initiates the inquiry. It is known, for example, that in 1896 the physicist Henri Becquerel, in his com­munication to the French Academy of Sciences, reported that he had discovered rays of an unknown nature emitted spontaneously by uranium salts. His discovery excited Marie Curie, and together with her husband Pierre Curie she tried to obtain more knowledge about the radiation. What was it exactly? Where did it come from?

Second comes the collecting of facts: the techniques of doing this will differ according to the problem which is to be solved. But it is based on the experiment in which anything may be used to gather the essential data — from a test-tube to an earth-satellite. It is known that the Curies encountered great difficulties in gather­ing their facts, as they investigated the mysterious uranium rays.

This leads to step three: organizing the facts and studying the relationships that emerge. It was already noted that the above rays were different from anything known. How to explain this? Did this radiation come from the atom itself? It might be expected that other materials also have the property of emitting radiation. Some investigations made by Mme Curie proved that this was so. The discovery was followed by further experiments with «active» radioelements only.

TEXT II

The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the lithosphere, the comparatively rigid outer layer of the earth that includes all the crust and part of the underlying mantle. The lithosphere is divided into a few dozen plates of various sizes and shapes; in general the plates are in motion with respect to one another. A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between plates where new lithosphere material is injected from below. As the plates diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer at the base of the lithosphere.

Since the size of the earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere can be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithosphere material is consumed elsewhere. The site of this destruction is another kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone. There one plate dives under another and is reincorporated into the mantle. Both kinds of plate boundary are associated with fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but the kinds of geologic activity observed at the two boundaries are quite different.

The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate tectonics. The sea-floor spreading hypothesis was formulated chiefly by Harry H. Hess of Princeton University in the early 1960s. In its original version it described the creation and destruction of ocean floor, but it did not specify rigid lithosphere plates. The hypothesis was soon substantiated by the discovery that periodic reversals of the earth’s magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust. An explanation of this process devised by F. J. Vine and D.H. Matthews of Princeton is now generally accepted. As magma rises under the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become magnetized in the direction of the geomagnetic field. When the magma cools and solidifies, the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved in the magnetized volcanic rock. Reversals of the field give rise to a series of magnetic stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift. The oceanic crust thus serves as a magnetic tape recording of the history of the geomagnetic field. Because the boundaries between stripes are associated with reversals of the magnetic field that can be dated independently, the width of the stripes indicates the rate of sea-floor spreading. (Precisely how the earth’s magnetic field reverses at intervals of from 10, 000 to about a million years continues to be one of the great mysteries of geology).

It follows from the theory of sea-floor spreading that many of the most interesting geologic features of the earth’s surface are to be found on the ocean floor. The investigation of such features has been furthered in recent years by the development of deep-diving manned submersibles. In particular the U.S. research submersible Alvin, operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, has proved to be a valuable tool for studies of the sea bed. A geologist in the Alvin can collect rock samples and document in detail the setting of each rock. For the first time a marine geologist can have maps of a site as precise as those of a geologist on land.

TEXT III

Our suspicion that the earth’s climate changes in leaps comes from the evidence recorded in deep-sea sediments and in ice. The most studied of these records is the amount of heavy oxygen found in the preserved shells of microscopic animals on the ocean floor. The heavy form of oxygen in water vapor tends to be lost as atmospheric moisture is transported to the icecaps. The larger the icecap, the more heavy oxygen remains behind in seawater. Thus, in eras when the icecaps were large, shelled organisms contained more heavy oxygen than they did when the icecaps were small; the shells therefore contain a history of the ice ages.

The oxygen isotope record tells us that over the last million years the polar icecaps have changed in a cyclic fashion, going from the rather small size of the current warm period to the very large size at the maximum of the last glaciation. More important, these fluctuations in ice volume have been shown to be in tune with periodic changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun, generated by gravitational interactions among the objects making up our solar system. Because the timing of the oxygen isotope changes (as determined by age measurements on deep-sea sediment cores) matches what would be expected if the changes were driven by earth’s changing orbit, scientists are reasonably certain of the cause-and- effect relationship.

While the oxygen isotope record in the deep-sea sediments provided evidence pointing to the earth’s orbital cycles as the pacemaker of glaciation, it also tended to lull scientists into concluding that the earth’s climate responds gradually when pushed. This conclusion was drawn despite the realization that the response of polar icecaps to changing climate would to be sluggish that a smooth oxygen isotope record would be expected no matter how abrupt changes in environmental conditions might be. So lulled were we that other clues paleoclimatic records that pointed to abrupt response were largely disregarded.

The awakening came in the early 1980s when Hans Oeschger and his group at the university of Bern, Switzerland, carried out detailed measurements of the CO2 content of air trapped in the ice from a deep boring made at a site in southern Greenland. These measurements concentrated on a section of the core on which earlier studies made by the Danish group of Willi Dansgaard had shown repeated leaps in Greenland’s air temperature. To everyone’s surprise’ each of Dansgaard’s jumps was accompanied by a 20 percent change in the CO2 content of the air trapped in bubbles in the ice (and hence in the CO2 content of the air above Greenland at the time the ice formed).

Eyebrows were raised by Oeschger’s CO2 jumps because while temperature jumps could be written off as a curiosity of Greenland, the CO2 changes could not. The atmosphere’s CO2 is well mixed with its other gases; hence a measurement in Greenland typifies the entire globe. Furthermore, the changes in CO2, content found by the Oeschger group occurred in times as short as a few hundred years. To bring about these changes in CO2 requires some extraordinary change in the earth’s chemical cycles, particularly those operating in the ocean. Scientists were therefore forced to the realization that the leaps in Greenland’s climate were far-reaching, involving the workings of the ocean as well as those of the atmosphere.

TEXT IV

Developments in the blast furnace ironmaking process and advances in material sciences have improved the productivity, fuel consumption, product quality and campaign life of the blast furnace.

The duration of a blast furnace campaign was, until the start of the 1990s, influenced mainly by the lifetime of the lower shaft, i.e., the area of the highest thermal load.

This area was protected either by densely spaced copper plates or by cast-iron staves of different generations.

For the majority of large capacity blast furnaces operating today, design engineers have decided in favour of using staves for the cooling system because they enable intensive and, above all, uniform cooling of the furnace vessel. Classically, staves are made from nodular cast iron, which is cast around the cooling water pipes. They are installed over the entire furnace shell, from the bottom plate up to the throat. Frequently, however, the states are subjected to heavy stresses caused by high heat loads, particularly in the bosh and belly areas, which can limit the length of a furnace campaign.

This can lead to loss of the entire stave body, with only the water-conducting pipes remaining. It is believed that both the thermal conductivity of the cast iron material and the heat transfer between the piping and cast body may be the problem.

Even with the best known cooling systems, the lower shaft area remained the weak point of the blast furnace.

Producing staves from copper, using either drilled water passages in place of pipes or providing suitable channels when casting the copper slabs, has proven to be a significant step in the design of the modern blast furnace. The cooling effect is so intense that a protective layer forms within a few minutes, even in front of an unprotected stave. The insulating effect of such layers maintains the heat losses at a minimum.

These staves proved to be so successful that today the use of copper staves in the areas of high thermal load is state-of-the-art blast furnace technology. The lower stack is no longer considered to be a limiting factor to campaign life. Instead, the status of the hearth dictates the campaign life of the furnace.

СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

1. Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. - Практическая грамматика английского языка. – М., 2006

2. Комиссаров В.Н. Общая теория перевода. – М., 2000

3. Шеремет Л.Г. Основы теории перевода. – Чита, 2005

4. Learn to Read Science. – М., 1980

5. Swan M. Practical English Usage. – Oxford Univ. Press, 2002

6. Thompson A.J., Martinet A.V. A Practical English Grammar – Oxford University Press, 2000.

1 Обратите внимание на употребление Subjunctive Mood в данном предложении.

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