4. Polysemy

The bulk of English words are polysemantic, they possess more than one meaning. Monosemantic words, i.e. words having only one meaning are comparatively few in number, are mainly scientific terms, such -as hydrogen, molecule and the like. In Russian linguistic tradition it is common to call separate meanings of a polysemantic word lexico-semantic variants (LSV).

Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. In the course of a diachronic semantic analysis of the polysemantic word table we find that of all the meanings it has in Modern English, the primary meaning is ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’, which is proper to the word in the OE period (OE. tabule from L. tabula); all other meanings are secondary as they are derived from the primary meaning of the word and appeared later than the primary meaning. The terms secondary and derived meaning are sometimes used as synonymous, but not always.

Synchronically we understand polysemy as the coexistence and interrelation of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language.

The relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individual meanings may be different in different periods of the historical development of language because the structure of lexical meaning is constantly changing.

E.g.: monitor 1546, "senior pupil at a school charged with keeping order, etc.," from monitor "one who reminds, admonishes, or checks

The principal opposition in the semantic structure of a word as viewed synchronically is that of the central meaning and peripheral meanings. But synchronically there is no totally objective criterion to single out the central meaning, and we may find it difficult in some cases. Sometimes two or more meanings of the word may be felt as equally “central” in its semantic structure. E.g., the verb to get, which of the two meanings ‘to obtain’ (get a letter, knowledge, some sleep) or ‘to arrive’ (get to London, to get into bed).

The minimal stretch of speech which determines each individual meaning of a polysemantic word is the context. The context always eliminates polysemy. It may be verbal context (словесный) or situational context.

Almost all linguists recognize the fact that it can be further divided into smaller meaningful components. These get different names in works by different scientists but the most widely used term is seme. There exist different classifications of semes. According to V.G. Gak, lexical meaning comprises generic semes (архисемы, или семы родового значения), differential semes (дифференцирующие, или семы видового значения) and potential semes (потенциальные семы) that reflect potential, non-essential characteristics of the denotatum.

5. The Causes and Types of Semantic Changes

The meaning of a word changes in the course of time. The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic: For example, the change of the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily pen comes back to the latin word penna (a feather of a bird).

On the other hand, causes may be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may specialize in its meaning. The noun tide in Old English was polysemantic and denoted time, season, hour. When the French words time, season, hour were borrowed into English they ousted the word tide in these meanings. It was specialized and now means regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon.

Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul. He distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes).

Specialization. In some cases it takes place when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, e.g. case has a general meaning circumstances in which a person or a thing is.

Generalization is the transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one, e.g. journey was borrowed from French with the meaning one day trip, now it means a trip of any duration.

Metaphor is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. a bookworm (a person who is fond of books). Metaphor can be based on different types of similarity: similarity of shape head (of a cabbage), similarity of position foot (of a page), similarity of function, behaviour; similarity of colour.

Metonymy is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy based on spatial, temporal relations, relations of cause and result, instrumental (tongue 'the organ of speech' – ‘language'), relations between the material of which an object is made and the object itself: a glass, etc. A variety of metonymy is synechdoche, that is the transference of meaning from part to whole, e.g. the case when the nouns denoting the parts of human body come to denote human beings.

Elevation. It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time: knight originally meant a boy, then a young servant, then a military servant, then a noble man. Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people.

Degradation. It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time, e.g. villain originally meant working on a villa, now it means a scoundrel.

Hyperbole. It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration, e.g. to hate (doing something), not to see somebody for ages. hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. to split hairs.

Litotes. It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses the affirmative with the negative or vice versa, e.g. not bad (it is good), no coward, not half as important.