Homonyms – words identical in sound and spelling or in one of these aspects but different in their meaning, distribution and, in many cases, origin. E.g.: bank – берег банк ball – бал м’яч

sources of homonyms:1) Phonetic changes..2) Borrowings.3) The result of split polysemy.

1) Full lexical homonyms – represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm. E.g.: box – коробка; удар; самшит fan – вентилятор, фанат

2) Partial homonyms are subdivided into:

А) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms E.g.: to found – found (Past Indef “to find”).

b) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms E.g.: rose (flower) – rose (Past I“to rise”)

c) partial lexical homonyms E.g.: to lie – to lie lay – lied lain –

Taking into consideration sound form, spelling and meaning, homonyms are classified into:

1) Perfect homonyms – words, identical both in spelling and sound form, but different in meaning. E.g.: case – чемодан; причина, випадок fair – ярмарок; чесний

2) Homophones – words, identical in sound form but different in spelling and meaning.

E.g.: to see – sea; sun – son; die – dye; fair – fare; sail – sale; cite – sight; flower – flour; hair – hare; peace – piece; rain – reign.

3) Homographs – words, identical in spelling, but different in sound form and meaning.

E.g.: lead – lead; tear – tear; Polish – polish; bow – bow.

SYNONYMS - 2 or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts.

E.G.: beautiful – pleasant, charming, wonderful hope – expectation, anticipation.

І Ideographic synonyms, which differ in denotational component, between which semantic difference can be observed. E.g.: courage–braver –fearlessnes –daring. fame–glory –repute

1) very close in meaning. 2) differ in meaning considerably. 3) d in manner of the action.

4) d in degree of a given quality, in the intensity of the action performed, intensity of emotions.

5) denote the same thing but differ in emotional colouring. E.g: small–little, boy–lad, big–great.

6)differ inthe volume of the concept they express.illness–ailment–disease–malady–indisposition

7) pairs of synonyms when one expresses continuity of action or state, the other – elementary action.E.g.: to speak – to say, to remember – to memorize, to hear – to listen.

ІІ.Stylistic synonyms – differ in connotational component, in all kinds of emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones.E.g:doctor–doc, it is–it’s, professor–prof, parent–father – Dad-papa.

According to criterion of interchangeability in linguistic context we distinguish:

1) Relative synonyms–which can substitute one another only in some contexts.to ask–beg–pray

2) Total synonyms – which can replace each other in any given context without alteration in denotation or connotation. flexion–inflexion–ending; physician–doctor; basement–foundation.

According to criterion of context synonyms are classified into:

1) Synonyms proper. 2) Contextual synonyms – similar in meaning only under some specific conditions. E.g.: I have bought a ticket. I have got a ticket.

ANTONYMS – words which are different in sound form and characterized by semantic polarity of their denotational meaning.

1) Absolute (root). are diametrically opposite in meaning and remain antonyms in any word combinations. E.g.: active–passive; alike–different; hot–cold; white–black; advance–retreat 2) Derivational are formed with the help of negative affixes:

a) prefixes: un- unhealthy; unhappy in- (ir-, il-, im-) immaterial; illegal; irregular.

b) suffixes, which give to the word the meaning of the presence or absence of quality or feature, indicated by a root: -ful, -less E.g.: helpful – helpless; tactful – tactless.

Antonyms may be:

1) Antonyms proper –E.g.: large – little, small; high – low, short, small.

2) Complementaries –a binary opposition,. male–female; prose–poetry.

3) Conversives – different points of view He gave her flowers. –She received flowers from him.

PRODUCTIVE TYPES OF WORD-FORMATION

1) Affixation. affixes are classified into native and borrowed; productive and non-productive types.

2) Composition Classification of compounds: neutral, morphological, syntactic

idiomatic compounds non-idiomatic compounds.

3) Conversion (verbs made from nouns: tool or implement, an animal, a part of the human body, a profession or occupation, a place, a container, a meal

4) Shortening There are 2 ways to read abbreviations: 1. As a succession of alphabet reading of letters або of sounds, denoted by letters

5) Clipping. Words, which have been shortened at the end (apocope), at the beginning (aphaeresis). Phone some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle (syncope).Maths at the beginning and end. Flu – influenza, fridge – refrigerator

NON-PRODUCTIVE TYPES OF WORD-FORMATION

1. Onomatopoeia chatter, bubble, murmur

2. Reduplication bye-bye ping-pong, chit-chat

3. Reversion (back-formation) to burgle from burglar

4. Blending smog – smoke+fog brunch – breakfast+lunch Bisquick – bisquit+quick

5. Sentence-condensation - substantivising of the phrase. forget-me-not,

6. Sound and stress interchange There are 2 groups of sound interchange: 1. Vowel interchange: (foot – feet). 2. Consonant interchange: (use [jus] – to use [juz], believe – belief,

Morpheme is the minimum meaningful language unit, constituent part of words, not independent, not divided into smaller meaningful units.

Types: Root morpheme – lexical nucleus of the word. Affixational morphemes (inflexional affixes (inflexions) and derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes).

Morphemes may be:

Free – coincide with word forms of independently functioning words.

Bound – do not coincide with independently functioning words. These are prefixes and suffixes.

Positional variant of morpheme occurring in the specific environment and characterized by complementary distribution is called allomorph.

According to number of morphemes words are classified into monomorphic and polymorphic (Derived words and Compound words)

Morphemic analysis. the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents (ICs and UCs).

It is based on binary principle. Each stage of the procedure involves 2 components the word immediately breaks into. (ICs). at the next stage of analysis is broken into smaller meaningful elements UCs. friend+ly + ness friendliness

(bird), Sound form Referent (a particular bird – голуб)

Referential and functional approaches to study of meaning. “Basic triangle”(Concept

Types of meaning.1) Grammatical 2) Lexical (Denotation Connotational)

Factors of changing of meaning: Extralinguistic factors Linguistic factors

Types of changing of meaning:

a) extension; country – сільська місцевість - країна

b) narrowing; field – поле – галузь.

c) transference (metaphor (short time) and metonymy); may be influenced by many relations: Spatial (house): Causial (youth): Symbolic (White House): Instrumental (hand): Common names derived from proper:

d) evaluation; Lord: master of the house – title

e) degradation. Villain – peasant – servant – rascal

Modern English vocabulary is divided into:

1) Words of literary stylistic layer (Standard English)

Literary colloquial. are words denoting everyday concepts. the core of the vocabulary.

Literary bookish words are mostly polymorphic and polysyllabic.

1)Terms: Popular(of special spheres of human knowledge, angina), Special (1 profession

2)Poetical words (poeticisms). sometimes literary neologisms - nonce-words. boyo - хлопчина

3)Barbarisms– words, which are borrowed without any change. ciao, tête-à-tête, vis-à-vis,

4)Archaisms.–garth - двір glave - меч standish - чорнильниця affright - лякати

5)Literary neologisms: 1) neologisms representing new meanings of long used words. mouse, driver, site. 2) r n names of long used concepts. E.g.: boss (master), Teddy-boy (dandy).

3) compound words created from existing native elements. E.g.: space rocket,, web-design,

4) words created through affixation. E.g.: televiewer, escapism, vitaminize, evacuee, rocketry.

5) phraseological word combinations. e.g.: frequency modulation, sit down strike.

6) words borrowed without any considerable change in sound or meaning. E.g.: sputnik,.

7) translation loans. E.g.: wall newspaper, chamber gown, collective farm.

8) words created from classical elements (Latin or greek). E.g.: isotope, positron, telegenic

9)combinations of etymologically and structurally heterogeneous elements. rhesus-factor,mini-c

2) Words of non-literary stylistic layer.the words of sub-standard English.

1) Colloquialisms conversational type of everyday speech. awfully sorry, a pretty little thing,

2) Slang – exist on periphery of the lexical system of the given language. божеволіти

students’ slang, newspapers’ slang, schoolboys’ slang etc. to go crackers to go bananas

3) Professionalisms outer – нокаут piper – кондитер, що прикрашає торти

4) Vulgarisms – rude words and expressions used mostly in the speech of lower levels of society. E.g.: son of a bitch, bloody beast. E.g.: damn it, to hell with, Goddamn, go to hell.

5) Jargonisms – words used within certain social and professional groups, a sort of secret code,

E.g.: Wet Triangle – Північне море to have soldier’s supper – лягти спати голодним

6) Dialect words – words and phrases used by inhabitants of certain regions of the country.

E.g.: baccy – tobacco unbeknown – unknown winder – window loch – lake.

We distinguish Cockney dialect – language of former inhabitants of London slums (East End).

e.g.: die (day), mike (make), plice (place), loaf (head), quid (pound), moll (woman).

ASSIMILATION OF BORROWINGS

Assimilation is the process of changing of borrowing according to the laws of the given language.

Borrowed words are adjusted in the three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic. adaptation

Degrees of assimilation.

1. Completely assimilated borrowings which underwent all types of assimilation.

2. Partially assimilated borrowings which lack one of the types of assimilation:

a) words not assimilated semantically b)wna grammatically c)wna phonetically; d) wna graphically.

3. Barbarisms which are completely non-assimilated borrowings

International Words a word is borrowed by several languages Latin and Greek origin.

political terms, scientific and technological advances, sports terms, Fruits and foodstuffs,

Etymological Doublets.

The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Such words as these two originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets. senior (Lat.) sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) channel (Fr.)

Etymological triplets hospital (Lat.) hostel (Norm. Fr.) hotel (Par. Fr.)

A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was derived history — story, fantasy — fancy, fanatic — fan, defence — fence, courtesy — curtsy, shadow — shade.

Translation-Loans. borrowings of a special kind. They

each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from Germ. Meisterstűck), wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind), first dancer (from Ital. prima-ballerina), collective farm (from R. колхоз), five-year plan (from R. пятилетка). Blitzkrieg was also borrowed into English in two different forms: the translation-loan lightning-war and the direct borrowings blitzkrieg and blitz.

ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY

Phraseological units are defined as non-motivated word groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced in speech as ready-made units.

Stability Reproducibility (regular use) Idiomaticity (the meaning of the whole is not deducible from the sum of meanings of the parts. E.g.: “red tape” – “bureaucratic method”