- •4 И (англ)
- •Предисловие
- •Part I. Theory Unit I Phonetics as a science
- •Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •Articulatory and physiological aspect of speech sounds
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit II The phoneme theory
- •Phoneme as a functional, material and abstract linguistic unit
- •Different opinions in the nature of phoneme
- •Notation
- •Methods of phonological analysis
- •The system of English phonemes
- •English segmental phonemes in writing
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit III Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants and vowels
- •Classification of English consonants
- •1. Manner of noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •2. The place of articulation.
- •3. The work of vocal cords.
- •4. Position of the soft palate.
- •Classification of English vowels
- •1. Stability of articulation.
- •2. Position of the tongue.
- •3. Position of the lips.
- •4. Degree of tenseness.
- •5. Length.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IV Modification of consonants and vowels in connected speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit V Syllable
- •Theories of syllable formation
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VI Word stress
- •Disyllables
- •Polysyllables
- •Words with suffixes
- •1. Accent-attracting suffixes (suffixes carrying primary stress themselves).
- •3. Accent-fixing suffixes (suffixes that influence stress in the stem).
- •Prefixes and stress
- •2. Prefixes which have a distinct meaning of their own.
- •Compound words
- •I. The primary stress on the first element.
- •II. The primary stress on the second element.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VII Sentence stress
- •Strong and weak forms
- •Unstressed vocalism
- •Phonemic status of the “schwa” vowel
- •Speech melody (pitch)
- •The heads
- •3. The Low Level Head. Pre-nuclear stressed syllables pronounced on the low pitch level. The Low pitch level generally occurs before the low rise and the low fall. Tempo of speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IX Phonetic styles
- •Intonational functional styles
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit X Territorial varieties of English language
- •Functional stylistics and dialectology
- •Varieties of the English language
- •English-based pronunciation standards of English
- •American-based pronunciation standards of English
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Несветайлова Ирина Валентиновна
2. The place of articulation.
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation.
I. Labial – subdivided into bilabial [p, b, m, w] and labio-dental [f, v].
II. Lingual: 1) forelingual are subdivided into a) dorsal (dental): [θ, ð], b) apical (alveolar): [t, d, s, z, l, n] and c) cacuminal (post-alveolar): [∫, ʒ , t∫, dʒ, r]; 2) medio-lingual (palatal): [j]; 3) backlingual (velar): [k, g, ŋ].
III. Pharyngal (glottal): [h].
This principle of consonant classification is rather universal. There is, however, controversy about terming the active organs of speech. Thus, Soviet phoneticians divide the tongue into the following parts: 1) front with the tip, 2) middle, and 3) back.
Following L.V. Shcherba’s terminology, the front part of the tongue is subdivided into apical dorsal, cacuminal and retroflexed.
A.C. Gimson’s terms: apical is equivalent to forelingual; frontal is equivalent to medio-lingual; dorsum is the whole upper area of the tongue.
H.A. Gleason’s terms in respect to the parts of the bulk of the tongue are: apex – the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the alveolus; front – the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the palate; back, or dorsum – the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the velum or the back part of the palate.
3. The work of vocal cords.
Voiced – the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate [b, d, g, z, v, ð, ʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w, ʤ]. Voiced consonants – lenis, “soft, weak” – the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation is weaker.
Voiceless – the vocal cords are taken part and do not vibrate [p, t, k, s, f, θ, h, ∫, t∫]. Voiceless consonants – fortis, “strong, energetic” – the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their production is greater.
4. Position of the soft palate.
Oral – the soft palate is raised and the air from the lungs gets into the pharynx and then into the mouth cavity [p, t, k, f, v].
Nasal –the soft palate is lowered and the air on its way out passes through the nasal cavity [m, n, ŋ].
Classification of English vowels
The first who tried to describe and classify vowel sounds irrespective of the mother tongue was D. Jones. He devised the system of 8 Cardinal Vowels. This system is international standard. The basis of the system is physiological. The starting point of the tongue position is for [i].
Acoustically vowels are musical tones, not noises. Though the word “vowel” is derivative of “voice” vowels are not necessarily connected with voice. L.R. Zinder states that if the organs of speech are adjusted for the articulation of some vowel, it can be pronounced without voice, breathing the air out of the mouth cavity, then a voiceless vowel is produced. Such voiceless vowels exist in all languages as a “schwa” in a terminal position after voiceless, especially occlusive consonants.
Acoustically vowels differ due to their tembral colouring, each vowel is characterised by its own formants – concentrations of energy in certain frequency regions on the spectrogram.
There are 20 vowel phonemes in English.