- •4 И (англ)
- •Предисловие
- •Part I. Theory Unit I Phonetics as a science
- •Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •Articulatory and physiological aspect of speech sounds
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit II The phoneme theory
- •Phoneme as a functional, material and abstract linguistic unit
- •Different opinions in the nature of phoneme
- •Notation
- •Methods of phonological analysis
- •The system of English phonemes
- •English segmental phonemes in writing
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit III Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants and vowels
- •Classification of English consonants
- •1. Manner of noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •2. The place of articulation.
- •3. The work of vocal cords.
- •4. Position of the soft palate.
- •Classification of English vowels
- •1. Stability of articulation.
- •2. Position of the tongue.
- •3. Position of the lips.
- •4. Degree of tenseness.
- •5. Length.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IV Modification of consonants and vowels in connected speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit V Syllable
- •Theories of syllable formation
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VI Word stress
- •Disyllables
- •Polysyllables
- •Words with suffixes
- •1. Accent-attracting suffixes (suffixes carrying primary stress themselves).
- •3. Accent-fixing suffixes (suffixes that influence stress in the stem).
- •Prefixes and stress
- •2. Prefixes which have a distinct meaning of their own.
- •Compound words
- •I. The primary stress on the first element.
- •II. The primary stress on the second element.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VII Sentence stress
- •Strong and weak forms
- •Unstressed vocalism
- •Phonemic status of the “schwa” vowel
- •Speech melody (pitch)
- •The heads
- •3. The Low Level Head. Pre-nuclear stressed syllables pronounced on the low pitch level. The Low pitch level generally occurs before the low rise and the low fall. Tempo of speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IX Phonetic styles
- •Intonational functional styles
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit X Territorial varieties of English language
- •Functional stylistics and dialectology
- •Varieties of the English language
- •English-based pronunciation standards of English
- •American-based pronunciation standards of English
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Несветайлова Ирина Валентиновна
The system of English phonemes
Speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. From articulatory point of view the difference is in the work of speech organs.
Articulatory differences between vowels and consonants depend on the three articulatory criteria:
a) the presence or absence of an articulatory obstructions to the air stream in the larynx or in the supra-glottal cavities;
b) the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension;
c) the force of exhalation.
On the basis of these criteria consonants can be defined as sounds in the production of which there is an articulatory obstruction to the air stream, muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction, the exhaling force is rather strong.
Vowels may be defined as sounds in the production of which there is no obstruction to the air stream, muscular tension is diffused more or less evenly throughout the supra-glottal part of the speech apparatus, the exhaling force is rather weak.
English segmental phonemes in writing
Language performs its function as a means of intercommunication not only in oral form but also in written form. Therefore it is important to establish the relationship between sounds and letters, which represent them.
A letter or letter combination, representing a phoneme, or a sequence of phonemes in writing is called a grapheme.
A graphemic symbol is included into triangular brackets < >. Graphemes in English seldom have reference to single phonemes. As a rule, one grapheme has many phonemic references: a) single-valued graphemes: <w> – way, <b> – bay, <l> – lid; b) multi-valued graphemes: <ch> – [k] mechanic, [∫] machine, [kw] choir, [t∫] bench, [k] chemistry.
Simple and complex graphemes. A grapheme, consisting of one letter, which corresponds to one phoneme, is called a monograph. Two, three and four letter graphemes, which correspond to one phoneme are called digraph, trigraph, polygraph.
Glossary of phonetic terms
Allochrones – quantitative variants of a phoneme. The term is used by D. Jones.
Alternation of sounds – changes of the same sounds in different derivatives from the same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different allomorphs of the same morphemes (child-children).
Chroneme – a unit, which shows that length is phonemically relevant.
Complementary distribution – arrangement of allophones of one and the same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.
Diacritic – a sign, such as an accent or cedilla, which when written above or below a letter indicates a difference in pronunciation from the same letter when unmarked or differently marked.
Diaphone – allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by different people.
Distributional analysis – the method which helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, that is all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.
Combinatory allophones are variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds together.
Positional allophones are variants of a phoneme which are used in definite position due to the tradition of a language pronunciation.