- •4 И (англ)
- •Предисловие
- •Part I. Theory Unit I Phonetics as a science
- •Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •Articulatory and physiological aspect of speech sounds
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit II The phoneme theory
- •Phoneme as a functional, material and abstract linguistic unit
- •Different opinions in the nature of phoneme
- •Notation
- •Methods of phonological analysis
- •The system of English phonemes
- •English segmental phonemes in writing
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit III Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants and vowels
- •Classification of English consonants
- •1. Manner of noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •2. The place of articulation.
- •3. The work of vocal cords.
- •4. Position of the soft palate.
- •Classification of English vowels
- •1. Stability of articulation.
- •2. Position of the tongue.
- •3. Position of the lips.
- •4. Degree of tenseness.
- •5. Length.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IV Modification of consonants and vowels in connected speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit V Syllable
- •Theories of syllable formation
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VI Word stress
- •Disyllables
- •Polysyllables
- •Words with suffixes
- •1. Accent-attracting suffixes (suffixes carrying primary stress themselves).
- •3. Accent-fixing suffixes (suffixes that influence stress in the stem).
- •Prefixes and stress
- •2. Prefixes which have a distinct meaning of their own.
- •Compound words
- •I. The primary stress on the first element.
- •II. The primary stress on the second element.
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit VII Sentence stress
- •Strong and weak forms
- •Unstressed vocalism
- •Phonemic status of the “schwa” vowel
- •Speech melody (pitch)
- •The heads
- •3. The Low Level Head. Pre-nuclear stressed syllables pronounced on the low pitch level. The Low pitch level generally occurs before the low rise and the low fall. Tempo of speech
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit IX Phonetic styles
- •Intonational functional styles
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Unit X Territorial varieties of English language
- •Functional stylistics and dialectology
- •Varieties of the English language
- •English-based pronunciation standards of English
- •American-based pronunciation standards of English
- •Glossary of phonetic terms
- •Несветайлова Ирина Валентиновна
Different opinions in the nature of phoneme
Psychological (Mentalistic) view regards the phoneme as an ideal “mental image” at which the speaker aims. The originator of the theory, I.A. Baudauin de Courtenay viewed phonemes as fictitious units and considered them to be only perceptions. The theory has been adopted by American structuralists E.D. Sapir and L.B. Bloomfield, who defined phoneme as a minimum unit of distinctive-sound features, an abstractional fiction.
Functional view regards the phoneme as the minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced speech sounds. This view is shared by L.B. Bloomfield, R. Jackobson, M. Halle and N.S. Trubetskoy, representative of the Prague linguistic school, who defined the phoneme as a unity of phonologically relevant features.
Abstract view of the phoneme regards phonemes as essentially independent of the acoustic and physiological properties associated with them, that is, of speech sounds. This view of the phoneme was pioneered by L. Hjelmslev and his associates in the Copenhagen Linguistic Circle, H. J. Uldall and K. Togby.
The physical view regards the phoneme as a “family” of related sounds satisfying certain conditions. The view was introduced by D. Jones representative of the London School of phonology, who defined phonemes as a family of sounds. The view was shared by B. Bloch and G. Trager. Representative of the French linguistic school Ferdinand de Saussure viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic impressions and articulatory movements.
Notation
Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds. The symbolization of sounds differs according to whether the aim is to indicate the phoneme or to reflect the modifications of its allophones.
I. The Broad or phonemic transcription provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language and mainly used for practical purposes.
Phonemic transcription is based on the principle “one symbol per phoneme”. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as an abstraction and generalization. The symbols are usually placed between two slanting lines: /p/, /b/, /i/, /u: / etc.
II. The Narrow or allophonic transcription is based on the principle “one symbol per allophone”. This transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme (diacritics): [khit]. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The symbols are usually placed between square brackets [ ]. The narrow type serves the purposes of research work.
Methods of phonological analysis
The aim of the phonological analysis of a language is the identification of the phonemes and study of the patterns of relationship into which they fall.
There are two most widely used methods of finding it out: the distributional method and the semantic method.
The distributional method helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, that is all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (does not occur) in the words of a language.
The semantic method is based on a phonemic rule that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one another. It consists in systematic substitution of one sound for another in the same phonetic context in order to find out in which cases such substitution leads to a change of meaning.