1.2. Establishment of the literary norm

As we have said, in New English there emerged one nation and one national language. But the English literary norm was formed only at the end of the 17* century, when there appeared the first scientific English dictionaries and the first scientific English grammar. In the 17* and 18* centuries there appeared a great number of grammar books whose authors tried to stabilize the use of the language. Thus Samuel Johnson, the author of the famous Dictionary (1755), wrote that he preferred the use of"regular and solemn" pronunciation to the "cursory and

colloquial." Many famous writers also greatly contributed to the formation of English, and among them, first and foremost, thegreat Shakespeare.Early New English (15* — beginning of the 18* century) —the establishment of the literary norm. The language that was used in England at that time is reflected in the famous translation of the Bible called the King James Bible (published in 16И).Although the language of the Bible is Early Modern English, the authors tried to use a more solemn and grand style and more archaic expressions.A great influence was also connected with the magazine published by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele called The Spectator (1711—1714), the authors of which discussed various questions of the language, including its syntax and the use of words.Late New English — since the 18 century.If the gradual acceptance of a virtually uniform dialect by all

writers is the most important event in the emergence of Modern English, it must be recognised that this had already gone a considerable way before 1500, and it was undoubtedly helped by Caxton's introduction of printing in 1477. The fact that the London dialect was used by him in his translations and prefaces,and that Chaucer's works were among the books he published,led to its rapid diffusion throughout the country. But the adoption

of a standard of spoken English was a slower process. It was not until Elizabeth's time that the language of the court came to be generally recognised as the best form of spoken English; and as ate as the 18*, and even the early 19* century country gentlemen in their occasional visits to polite society in London were no

ashamed to use dialect.Nevertheless, despite the persistence of wide varieties in pronunciation, the basic phonetic changes that distinguish Modern English from Middle English are profound, though they are not reflected in a similar modification of spelling. The early printers, whose practice was to prove of decisive importance for

the future, derived their spelling from the Middle English scribes(a fact that largely accounts for the difficulty of English spelling today). The most important of these changes was that affecting the sound of vowels and diphthongs, with the result that the"continental values" of Middle English were finally replaced by an approximation to modern pronunciation. Lesser changes also occurred in the pronunciation of consonants, though some these have since been restored by conscious, and often mistaken,attempts to adapt pronunciation more closely to the received spelling.1.3. Geographical expansion of English in the 17th—20^th centuries and its effect on the language.Up to the 17l century the English language was spoken by the people who lived only on the British Isles (at the time of William the Conqueror there were about 2 million people), but even there in the far-away mountainous parts of the country the people preserved their own Celtic dialects very long into the New English period. Thus in Cornwall the local dialect, Cornish died out in the 18th century. In Wales there arose a tendency to revive the local Celtic language. In 1893 the Welsh University was founded, and in 1961 the number of those speaking Welsh amounted to 650 thousand. In Ireland through centuries a struggle against English was fought. It reached its climax in 1916 with the Irish rebellion. In 1922 the Irish free state was formed and in

1949 the new state — Eire — left the Commonwealth of Nations.Now Eire occupies the whole but the Northern part of Ireland,which is a part of Britain. The number of people rose from 300 thousand to over 600 thousand, but the majority speak English.The penetration of the English language to other parts of the globe mainly began in the 16 century together with the expansion of British colonialism. The 16' century was an age of great adventurers, and England's progress in the discovery and colonising field was tremendous. The first Virginian colony was

founded; Drake circumnavigated the globe; the East India Company was established and English seamen left their mark in many parts of the world. In 1620 the famous ship The Mayflower reached North America in the region which is now the state of Massachusetts. This marked the beginning of English in the New World.

The 18 century witnessed the coming of English to India, where nowadays the language is widely spread, although its sphere is limited to large cities and a certain social layer, and in today's India English is a state language together with the native languages of Hindi and Urdu.,th In the 18 ' century England conquered Canada. During the19ft century the colonisation of Australia took place. In the 20 century English penetrated into South Africa.