- •1.The aim of the study of the subject ‘‘The History of the English Language’’.
- •2. Inner and outer history of the language ‘‘The History of the English Language’’.
- •4. Chief characteristics of the Germanic languages. Grammar. Alphabet.
- •5.Old English. Outer history. Principal written records.
- •6. Old English. Outer history. Dialectal classification.
- •7. Old English. Inner history. Phonetics. Spelling. Grammar. Vocabulary.
- •Vocabulary
- •1.2. Establishment of the literary norm
- •11.New English. Inner history. Phonetics. Grammar. Vocabulary.2. Inner history
- •12.Old English Phonetics. Origin of Old English vowel phonemes. Changes in Old English vowel phonemes. Breaking. Palatal mutation. Effect of palatal mutation upon grammar and word-stock.
- •2. Changes in Old English
- •Vowel phonemes
- •13. Old English consonants. Dependence of the quality of the consonant phoneme upon its environment in the word. Grimm's law, Verner's law.
- •14. Old English grammar. General survey of the nominal system. The noun. Gender. Number. Case.
- •15. Old English grammar. Declensions in Old English. Vowel-Stems. Declension of a-stem nouns. Consonant stems. Declension of n-stem nouns. Declension of root-stem nouns.
- •17. Old English grammar. The adjective. Declension of adjectives. Degrees of comparison of adjectives.
- •18. Old English grammar. General survey of finite and non-finite forms of the verb. Grammatical categories of the finite forms of the verb. Person. Number. Tense. Mood.
- •19. Old English grammar. Morphological classification of verbs. Strong verbs. Weak verbs.
- •20. Old English grammar. Morphological classification of verbs. Irregular verbs. Irregular weak verbs. Irregular strong verbs. Suppletive verbs.
- •Irregular verbs
- •Irregular weak verbs
- •Irregular strong verbs
- •21. Changes in the phonetic system in Middle English. Vowels in the unstressed position. Vowels under stress. Qualitative changes.
- •Vowels under stress
- •22. Changes in the phonetic system in Middle English. Vowels in the unstressed position. Vowels under stress. Quantitative changes.
- •Vowels under stress
- •23. Changes in the phonetic system in Middle English. Consonants.
- •24. Changes in the phonetic system in New English. Vowels in the unstressed position. Vowels under stress. Qualitative changes.
- •Vowels under stress
- •25. Changes in the phonetic system in New English. Vowels in the unstressed position. Vowels under stress. Quantitative changes.
- •Vowels in the unstressed position. Quantitative changes
- •26. Changes in the phonetic system in New English. Consonants.
- •28. General survey of grammar changes in Middle and New English. The noun. Middle English. Morphological classification. Grammatical categories.
- •In Middle and New English
- •Grammatical categories
- •29. New English. Morphological classification. Origin of irregular noun forms. Grammatical categories.
- •30. New English. The adjective. The pronoun. The article.
- •31. Old English. General characteristics. Means of enreaching vocabulary. Internal means. External means.
- •Vowel interchange:
- •32. Middle English. General characteristics. Means of enreaching vocabulary. Internal means. External means.
- •Internal means of enriching vocabulary
- •33. New English. General characteristic. Means of enriching vocabulary. Internal means.
- •34. New English. General characteristic. Means of enriching vocabulary. External means.
- •35. Ethymological strata in Modern English. General characteristic. Native elements in Modern English. Common Indo-European stratum. Common Germanic stratum.
- •36. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Foreign element in Modern English (borrowings). Latin element.
- •37. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Foreign element in Modern English (borrowings). Scandinavian element.
- •38. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Foreign element in Modern English (borrowings). French element.
- •39. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Word-hybrids.
- •40. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Ethymological doublets.
39. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Word-hybrids.
The extensive borrowing from various languages and assimilation of loan words gave rise to the formation in English of a large number of words the elements of which are of different origin — they are generally termed word-hybrids.
English French
be- -cause because
a- -round around
out cry outcry
over power overpower
fore front forefront
plenty ful plentiful
aim- -less aimless
re- take retake
English Scandinavian
par- take partake
bandy- leg bandy-legged
French Scandinavian
re- call recall
Latin French
juxta- position juxtaposition
40. Ethymological strata in Modern English. Ethymological doublets.
Ethymological doublets are words developing from the same word or root, but which entered the given language, in our case English, at different times of through different channels. Classifying them according to the ultimate source of the doublets we shall receive the following:
Ultimate Modern source doublets Period and channel
Common Indo-European
*pater fatherly native
paternal M.E. French borrowing
Common Germanic
*gher- yard native
garden M.E. French borrowing
*gens- choose native
choice M.E. French borrowing
*wer ward native
guard M.E. French borrowing
*sker shirt native
skirt M.E. Scandinavian borrowing
*skhed shatter native
scatter M.E. Scandinavian borrowing
Latin
discus disk O.E. Latin borrowing
disc N.E. Latin borrowing
moneta mint O.E. Latin borrowing
money M.E. Latin borrowing
Greek
adamas diamond Early M.E. French borrowing
adamant Later M.E. French borrowing
Hebrew
basam balm M.E. French borrowing
balsam N.E. Latin borrowing
The examples of various ethymological strata in the Modern English vocabulary mentioned above may serve as a sufficient testimony of a long and complicated .history of the English nation and the English language. They prove that language changes can be understood only in relation to the life of the people speaking the language.