- •1. Morphology and syntax as parts of grammar. Main units of grammar and types of relations between grammatical units in language and speech.
- •1 Syntagmatic relations
- •2 Paradigmatic relations
- •2. Main grammatical notions. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
- •Grammatical form
- •2. Grammatical meaning
- •6. Notional and functional classes of words.
- •5. Parts of speech. Principles of classification.
- •1 Principle The Semantic Approach
- •3 Principle The Syntactic (Functional) Approach
- •4 Notional classes of words
- •7. The noun. The category of number.
- •4. Combinability:
- •10. The adjective. The category of degrees of comparison.
- •2. Morphological properties:
- •3. Syntactic properties:
- •3) Absolute superiority or inferiority:
- •9. The noun. The category of article determination.
- •Indefinite
- •Indefinite article
- •3. Structure of words. Types of morphemes.
- •11. The category of tense. Posteriority.
- •12. The category of order / correlation.
- •13. The category of aspect.
- •14. The category of Voice
- •Voice opposition
- •Voice and Syntactic Structure
- •1. The Active construction
- •2 The Passive construction
- •Verbs used in the Passive Voice
- •15. Mood and modality
- •16. Verbals. The category of representation.
- •1. Lexico-grammatical meaning:
- •3. Morphological categories:
- •4. Syntactic functions:
- •23. Complex Sentence.Structural classification.
- •III. Sentences with optional dependent clauses:
- •17. Phrase. Principles of classification.
- •4. Means of form-building.
- •18. Phrase. Types of relations between its constituents.
12. The category of order / correlation.
Temporal category of Order/ Correlation/ Retrospect/ Taxis/ Anteriority/ Priority
According to A.I. Smirnitsky’s criteria for grammatical categories, Perfect forms are not special tenses: otherwise two meanings of the same category would be expressed in one form: has written is simultaneously Present and Perfect, had written is simultaneously Past and Perfect.
if Present and Past are tenses, Perfect should belong to some other category expressed in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms
The Perfect (marked) form:
analytical: have + Participle II;
discontinuous morpheme: have…en;
meaning: precedence to some other moment or action
Come on, ladies. There's nothing to be afraid of. The mice have left the room. (present) He knew that as a girl she had lived in Rome. (past) If you come back in about twenty minutes, Alec and I will have had our talk. (future)
Perfect non-finite forms: I'm very glad to have seen you again.
The category of Order/ Priority
covers the whole verb system, including finite and non-finite forms:
to write – to have written, writing – having written (which have no tense forms).
does not cover only Participle II, the Imperative Mood and Subjunctive I.
expresses time relatively: by stating whether the action is prior or non-prior to some moment in the present, past or future.
NOTE:
In accordance with the kind of action/process denoted, notional verbs can be terminative/limitive (denote actions which cannot develop beyond a certain inherent limit: bring, jump, arrive, break, spoil, close, open, etc.) and durative/non-limitive/non-terminative (denote actions not limited inherently: walk, read, live, sleep, hope, stand, move, work, etc.).
This lexico-grammatical division is revealed in the categories of aspect and order.
The meaning of the concrete perfect forms is influenced by the lexical meaning of the verb and the context:
Terminative verbs in perfect forms denote completed actions and possess the meaning of result:
Go and wash your hands. – I have washed them. I've written a poem. I've finished the sandwiches.
In certain contexts terminative verbs in perfect forms can express repeated actions. In such cases the idea of completion is not expressed: You've always spoilt her. He has frequently lost his keys.
Durative verbs in perfect forms do not denote completed actions and have no meaning of result. They can express either actions continuing up to a certain moment not including it (exclusive perfect): Here I am! Have you waited long? or including it (inclusive perfect): Isn't he in yet? Have you waited long?
The distinction between the inclusive and the exclusive perfect appears to be a matter of context.