26. Transformational model.

IC analysis is supplemented with rules for transforming1 S into another. It shows how kernel Ss can be transformed into that great variety of Ss we produce. The transformational sentence model – worked out by Chomsky + Harris. This approach is independent of structural linguistics though it originated from it. But it is a separate school. This model investigates relations between various derivation trees. It shows that the pattern of any sentence is derived of this or that basic syntactic pattern called kernel sentence. The model uses the concept of derivation on the syntactic level. Kernel sentences are elementary sentence models whose structure can’t be derived from other more elementary constructions. Chomsky singled out 7 kernel sentences in English: NV – John came. NV p N – John looked at Mary. NVN – John saw Mary. N is N – John is a doctor. N is p N – John is at table.

N is D(adv) – John is out. N is A – John is angry. These sentences used to build more complex pattern constructions called transforms. To build them 4 transform rules are used: 1) permutation 2) substitution 3) adjunction (дополнение) 4) ellipsis (опущение). Nouns can be extended by various determinants: articles, pronouns. Verbs – by adverbs. Separate kernel sentences can be combined and altered with the help of the following transformations: negative, interrogative, interrog-negative, passive. EX: John ate the bananas. John didn’t eat the bananas. Did John eat the bananas? Did John not eat the bananas? The bananas were eaten by John. EX: The old man saw a black dog. – deep structure derived from kernel sentences: The man saw a dog. It was there. The man was there. The dog was black. The man who was old saw a dog there. This model can be used to differentiate the structure. EX: John is easy to please – It’s easy/ X pleases John. John is eager to please – John is eager/ John pleases X. This model enables us to differentiate homonymous constructions. EX: Flying planes can be dangerous – Planes fly. These models give rules to generating sentences.

21. Principles of classification of simple sentences.

Definitions. Logical: A sentence is a proposition expressed by words. A proposition is the semantic invariant of all the members of modal and communicative paradigms of sentences and their transforms. But besides sentences which contain propositions there are interrogative and negative sentences. Speech is emotional. There is no one to one relationship. Then a sentence can be grammatically correct, but from the point of view of logic it won’t be correct, true to life (Water is a gas). Laws of thinking are universal but there are many languages. Grammar and Logic don’t coincide.

Structural: A sentence is a subject-predicate structure. Grammatical subject can only be defined in terms of the sentence. Moreover the grammatical subject often does not indicate what we are “talking about” (The birds have eaten all the fruit. It is getting cold). Besides, this definition leaves out verbless sentences. There are one-member sentences. They are non-sentences? Conclusion – a sentence is a structural scheme.

Phonological: A sentence is a flow of speech between 2 pauses. But speech is made up of incomplete, interrupted, unfinished, or even quite chaotic sentences. Speech is made up of utterances but utterances seldom correspond to sentences.

Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features of the sentence are:

- integrity,

- syntactic independence,

- grammatical completeness,

- semantic completeness,

- communicative completeness,

- communicative functioning,

- predicativity,

- modality,

- intonational completeness.

Principles of classification of simple sentences. According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. Prof. Ilyish: before dividing sentences into 3 classes we should divide them into emotional and non-emotional and within emotional we can establish 4 classes.

As to their structure:

1) simple (sentence with only one predication);

2) composite (sentence with more than one predication):

- compound (composite sentence with coordinated clauses);

- complex (composite sentence containing subordinated clauses);

3) two-member (sentence with full predicate) and one- member

4) extended (sentence containing some words besides the predication), unextended (sentence containing only subject and predicate) and contracted (sentence with several subjects to one predicate or several predicates to one subject);

5) elliptical (incomplete)

As to their categories.

According to the grammatical (syntactical) category of presentation: statement, question.

According to the category of information: affirmation, negation.

According to the category of expressiveness: emphatic, non-emphatic.

25. Structural models of sent analysis. Distributional model. IC-model.

S is a structural, sem & communicative unit. It can be analyzed at different levels. The most universally accepted are syntactic, semantic & logical-communicative.

The term distribution total set of environments of a certain element. may be in:1)non-contrastive distribn(the same position,no difference in mng;variants of the same element):hoofs-hooves; 2)contrastive d.(the same position,different mngs):she’s charming-she’s charmed; 3)complementary d.(the same mng,different position;variants of the same element):cows-oxen. class 1-N, cl2- V, cl3-adj, cl4-adv

The DM shows the linear order of sent constituents. The synt structure of the sent is presented as a sequence of positional classes of words:The old man saw a black dog there (D A1 N1 V D A2 N2 Adv)”+”Showing the linear order of classes of words, “-“ doesn’t show how ws are connected semantically; no inf about actual syntactic relations of sentence constituents. The police shot a man in the red cap(in the right arm)

IC-Model (based on binary principle, shows the hierarchy of members of S). A sent is a structured string of words grouped into phrases, so sent constituents are words & word-group. The basic principle for grouping words into phrases(endo- or exocentric) is cohesion(the possibility to substitute a word for the whole group without destroying the structure of the sentence). Ex:The old man(NP) saw a black dog there(VP)→2 immediate constituents –NP & VP, each has constituents of its own. Constituents which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The ICM exists in 2 main versions:1)the analytical model & 2)the derivation tree. 1)divides the sentence into IC-s & UC-s. 2)shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents.So the ICM shows both the syntactic relations & the linear order of elements.