Virtue ethics is about character (agent-centered)

Virtues may be defined as the just means between two values (this is what Aristotle proposes) but this idea is not necessary present in contemporary virtue ethicists

Education and habits are necessary in order to develop a virtuous character, but they should be coupled by experience and reason, that is to say practical wisdom

CONSEQUENTIALISM: Egoism

Consequentialism is a teleological theory (it stresses the end or goals of actions) focusing on the consequences of those actions (usually asking to maximize the good of those and deriving from those actions)

A general formula for consequentialism:

The morally right action is the one producing the best (or better) overall consequences

EGOISM

Two types:

1) Psychological egoism:

Psychological Egoism is a descriptive theory about what people are like: basically it asserts that people are always selfish or self-interested.

It asserts that each person does in fact pursue his or her own self-interest exclusively.

Selfish: people act for their own narrow and short-range interest

Self-interested: people act for their broad and long-term self-interest

A better formulation is to say that we desire to attain our own best interest à we act according to what we think is in our best interest

But in order to show that psychological egoism is true, it should be shown not only that often we act for the sake of our own self-interest, but that we do it always

2) Ethical egoism

• Ethical Egoism is a normative theory about what people ought to do: an action is morally right if it maximizes one’s self-interest

• Argument

1)We ought to do whatever will best promote everyone’s interests

2) The best way to promote everyone’s interests is to pursue our own interests exclusievely

3) Each of us should persue our own interests exclusively

• Three different versions:

• Individual Ethical Egoism: it states that everyone ought to act in my own best interest

• Personal Ethical Egoism: it states that I ought to act in my own self interest, but that I make no claims about what anyone else ought to do

• Universal Ethical Egoism: it states as its basic principle that everyone should always act in his or her own best self-interest, regardless of the interests of others, unless their interests also serve his or hers.

Ayn Rand’s Argument (1905-1982)

• Morality demands absolute respects for the rights of individuals

• She considered ethics of altruism as a destructive idea

• Altruism leads to the denial of the value of an individual

• “If a man accepts an ethics of altruism his first concern is not how to live his life, but how to sacrifice it.”

Certain limitations

• Hierarchy of needs

• Satisfying yourself does not mean harming others

• Anarchy and egoism

• Duty to ourselves

• Freedom and rationality of the people

Problems with ethical egoism

• Lack of systematic approach

• Understanding motives is difficult

• Self interests vary and conflicts

DEONTOLOGICAL THEORIES:

WHAT IS RIGHT DEFINES WHAT IS GOOD OR THE RIGHT ACTION HAS PRIORITY OVER THE (GOOD) CONSEQUENCES

KANT (1724- 1804)

• Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg

• His farther was a German harnessmaker from Memel

• Kant studied at the University of Königsberg

• Fundamental Principles (or Foundations) of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

• Critique of Practical Reason (1788)

WHAT OUGHT I TO DO?

• Practical reason decides what is the moral behavior in order to act à what is my MORAL DUTY

GOOD WILL (the decision to act according to our moral duties) should not be influenced by:

• Circumstances

• Self-interest (the relationship with one’s own happiness or welfare)

The Formula of the Universal Law: act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.”

THE HUMANITY FORMULA: Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end in itself, never as means only.”

THE AUTONOMY FORMULA: the Idea of the will of every rational being as a will that legislates universal law.”

THE KINGDOM OF ENDS FORMULA: act in accordance with the maxims of a member giving universal laws for a merely possible kingdom of ends”

The three posits (a principle that can not be demonstrated, but stands at the basis of a system of thought) of Practical Reason:

1. FREEDOM : the world of phenomena is entirely dominated by the principle of causality.

2. IMMORTAL SOUL (Kant did not necessarily believe in immanent justice, a justice that can reward moral actions in this world. If we were sure of being rewarded, then we would make moral decisions only in order to be rewarded, but in this way we would lose the sense of pure morality.

3. GOD (We can not know God, but we need something that will provide us the convergence of values. Hence God is the condition of sense of our moral activity.

Nomadic and Traditional Cultures and Ethical Issues