The empire

In 1837 Victoria was crowned as the British Queen. She and her husband, Albert, came to symbolise many virtues: a close-knit family life, a sense of public duty, integrity, and respectability. These beliefs and attitudes are often known as “Victorian”.

Britain's empire had first been built on trade and the need to defend this against rival European countries. Britain watched the oceans carefully to make sure its trade routes were safe, and fought wars in order to protect its "areas of interest". In 1839 it attacked China and forced it to allow the profitable British trade in opium from India to China. The "Opium Wars" were one of the more shameful events in British colonial history. Colonial wars were in all parts of the world. For example, the war in Afghanistan (1839-42), in Pakistan, India (1857).

Britain joined the Turks against Russia in Crimea in 1854. Britain succeeded in taking over large areas of Africa. The colonisation of Australia, especially after the gold rush of 1848, and of New Zealand, was intensified. In South Africa Britain defeated the Boers only with great difficulty. In 1882, Britain invaded Egypt "to protect international shipping", and it did not leave until forced to do so in I954.

By the end of the nineteenth century Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land areas of the world.

But other countries, Germany particularly, had greater natural wealth, including coal and iron, and wheat producing lands. Besides, British workers produced less than those in other countries, and Britain was behind other countries in science and technology, as well as in management skills, and did little to change this. Britain found that Germany, France and the USA were increasingly competing with her.

Suddenly Britain realised that it no longer ruled the seas quite so assuredly, and that others had more powerful armies and more powerful industries.

The twentieth century

THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Anglo-German relations were actually cordial in early 1914, and Britain was Germany’s best customer. It was Germany’s threat to France and its invasion of neutral Belgium that prompted Britain to declare war.

Apart from the Crimean War, this was Britain’s first European war for a century, and the country was quite unprepared for the terrible destructive power of modern weapons.

By the end of the war in November 1918 over 750,000 British soldiers had died, and another two million had been seriously wounded. About fifty times more people had died than in the twenty-year war against Napoleon.

Ireland

Before the beginning of the First World War the British government had agreed to home rule for Ireland. But the Irish republicans did not only want home rule, but full independence. At Easter 1916, these republicans rebelled in Dublin. The "Easter Rising" was quickly put down. The British executed all the leaders, which was a serious mistake. The public was shocked, not only in Ireland, but also in London.

In the 1918 elections the republicans won in almost every area except Ulster and the new parliament announced that Ireland was now a republic. Irishmen joined the republic's army, and guerrilla fighting against the British began. As a result the British government decided to make peace. In 1921 it agreed to the independence of southern Ireland. But it also insisted that Ulster, or Northern Ireland as it became known, should remain united with Britain.

Thus, since 1921 the country has been known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Within the Republic of Ireland the majority have continued to believe that all Ireland should one day be united, but without the use of force. A minority, however, has remained since 1921 ready and willing to use violent means to achieve a united Ireland.