3.English idioms. Different approaches to classification of phraseological units. V.V. Vinogradov’s classification.

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phr. units (idioms) can be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of language vocabulary.

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. Phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it.

The term idiom implies that the essential feature of linguistic unit is its idiomasity or lack of motivation. The term word equivalent stresses not only semantic but functional inseparability of a certain word-group, its ability to function in speech as a single word.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:

a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. at sixes and sevens - (in a mess) etc;

b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc;

c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

4.Semasiology (approaches to meaning). Semantic processes in English (change of meaning). Types of word meaning. The theory of the semantic field.

The branch of lexicology which deals with the meaning is called semasiology.

WORD – MEANING. Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner aspect (its meaning).

LEXICAL MEANING – NOTION. The lexical meaning of a word is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system. A word is a language unit, while a notion is a unit of thinking. A notion cannot exist without a word expressing it in the language, but there are words that do not express any notion but have a lexical meaning.

SEMANTIC PROCESSES. CHANGE OF MEANING. The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman. It is based on the logical principle. He distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litote).

Semantic classification of English vocabulary. Polysemy, synonymy and antonymy in ME.

POLYSEMY. The word „polysemy” means „plurality of meanings” it exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.

E.g. the word „blanket” has the following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind /a blanket of snow/, covering all or most cases /used attributively/, e.g. we can say „a blanket insurance policy”

SYNONYMS. Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. Traditional Linguistics defines synonyms as words of the same category of a part of speech conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

The following characteristic fea­tures of the dominant synonym can be underlined:

1. High frequency of usage.

2. Broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words.

3. Broad general meaning.

4. Lack of connotations.

ANTONYMS. Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions.

V.N. Komissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups : absolute or root antonyms /”late” - „early”/ and derivational antonyms / „to please’ - „to displease”/ . Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes form antonyms / un-, dis- , non-/. Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes -ful and -less.

Morphemic structure of English word. Productive ways of word formation.

English words are constructed from two different types of morphemes -- Roots and Affixes. Each of these classes can be further subdivided: Roots can be divided into Free Roots and Bound Roots; Affixes can be divided into Prefixes and Suffixes.

Roots differ from affixes in two ways:

1) Roots usually have a rather specific meaning, and this meaning tends to be relatively constant across all the words that use the root. EVERY WORD HAS AT LEAST ONE ROOT.

For example, pter is a root meaning 'wing'. It appears in words like:

The form pter always has the specific meaning 'wing' in each word.

Affixes are morphemes which are attached to roots and other affixes. Their main use is to modify the meaning conveyed by the root or roots.

Types of Roots

Free Roots are roots that can occur alone as whole words. Many native words such as blue and berry, are free roots because they can stand alone as single words. Free roots can also be combined with other roots or affixes to form more complex words, for example blueberry and bluish.

Bound Roots can never occur alone as whole words. For example, the roots cran and rasp cannot stand alone; they must occur in combination with other morphemes, such as cranberry and raspberry.

Types of Affixes

Affixes by definition are always bound. They are divided into two different types depending on where they attach to the root.

• Prefixes occur before a root.

• Suffixes occur after a root.

The two types of affixes also differ in how they affect the meaning of the word.

Prefixes modify the meaning of the root in some way. Often, they provide spatial information about an action named by the root.

Their most important function of Suffixes is to indicate the part of speech of the word. Suffixes identify a word as being a NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERB. They can change the word from one part of speech to another.