The morphological level has two level units:

1. the `morpheme – the lowest meaningful unit (teach – teacher);

2. the word - the main naming (`nominative) unit of language.

The syntactical level has three level units as well:

a)phrase b) sentence - the main communicative unit. c)text

Lexical level, its unit is:

1. the word-group – the dependent syntactic unit;

2. word

The supersyntactical level has the text as its level unit.

Language as a functional system.

One of the main assumptions of Theoretical grammar is the systemic approach to the study of the linguistic units, which means that language is the system of interrelated and interconnected elements. Language system is a functional system, i.e. system that performs a certain function.

Function is the main property of the language.

The functions that the language performs are the following:

1. Communicative function; language serves for conveying information in the process of human intercourse; it enables people to cooperate with each other. So L. makes communication possible.

2. Cognitive function; L. serves for formulating and expressing thoughts, it enables us to think for ourselves. Though, the process of thinking is regarded as a complicated activity of mind that combines both verbal and non-verbal mechanisms of thought production.

3. Expressive function; L. is a means of expressing not only facts but also subjective attitudes of the speaker towards these facts. Thus, L. is a means of expressing our emotions and feelings.

These three functions are closely connected and interrelated. They are the basic functions of the language.

2. The dichotomy “plane of content – plane of expression”. The problem of their interrelation and correspondence.

Dichotomy is a separation between two opposed notions, phenomena, etc., which are given in comparison. In linguistic theory there are 3 dichotomies:

• plane of content – plane of expression

• language – speech

• synchrony – diachrony

Each of the dichotomies reveals a certain aspect of language system and gives an insight into the nature of language functioning.

The notion of linguistic dichotomies was introduced by a Swiss linguist Ferdinant de Saussure.

Plane of content – plane of expression. This dichotomy focuses on the fact that all linguistic units are two-sided, i.e. having form and meaning as each linguistic form corresponds to certain meaning. These two sides were called correspondently as plane of expression (план вираження) and plane of content (план змісту).

Plane of content comprises all meaningful characteristics of the language, plane of expression comprises the material (formal) characteristics of the language.

The complexity of the correspondence between the two planes results in such linguistic phenomena as polysemy, homonymy and synonymy.

The dichotomy: synchrony- diachrony

Synchrony means co-existence of the elements of the language and diachrony means different time periods in the development of the language.

The diachrony stresses the fact that the language is a developing system and it is changing. On the other hand language is a synchronic system of meaningful element at any stage of its hystorical evolution.

3. Grammatical meaning. Oppositional theory of grammatical category.

The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are referred in logic as “categorical notions” (categories). And the most general meaning rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlation of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as categorical grammatical meaning.

Grammatical meaning is confined not only to one individual word but to a whole class of words. Grammatical meaning is divided into:

• explicit (formally expressed): desks, brother’s room, worked;

• implicit (not expressed formally, hidden).

Implicit meaning can be of two types:

• general implicit meaning (categorical meaning of a part of speech, such as: substantivity, action, quality, etc.)

• dependent implicit meaning (exists inside general implicit meaning and depends upon it). Each part of speech is characterized by certain dependent implicit meaning. such as: countableness – uncountableness, animateness – inanimateness, etc.

All these meanings are inherent in a word, they are unmarked.

Grammatical category presents a unity of grammatical meaning and means of its formal expression. Grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of correlation of grammatical forms.

Grammatical category is expressed as an opposition of at least two grammatical forms which are the contrastive members of the opposition. One of these forms is marked (or strong) member of the opposition and the other is unmarked (weak) member.

The marked (strong) member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (“mark” – the morpheme that renders certain grammatical meaning), while the other member (weak) is characterized by the absence of this feature.

By the number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into binary (two member), ternary, quaternary, etc.

The realization of the grammatical category is restricted by the dependent implicit meaning.

Oppositional reduction is neutralization of oppositional differences in grammatical categories; when weak member takes up the meaning of a strong member. E.g. Man is master of nature. (man – weak member is used with the meaning of a strong member as “man” stands for all mankind, not for individual person).

The problem of analytical nature of grammatical structure of English.

English is analytical language by its structure as the majority of grammatical forms in English are formed with the help of different auxiliary elements, i.e. by external means of the word.

4. Pragmatic study of the language. The Theory of Speech Acts.

Pragmatics is one of the modern trends of linguistics. It appeared as a trend of functional linguistics the representatives of which elaborated their own interpretation of the communicative function of the language.

According to pragmatics people in attempt to express themselves do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words but they perform actions via those utterances. These actions are called Speech Acts. The task of Pragmatics is to study these actions. Speech act – is the action performed by the speaker via utterance in the process of communicative intercourse.

The Theory of Speech Acts.

The theory was elaborated by the Americans J.L.Austin and J.R.Searle.

According to this theory, speech acts are communicative structures which include 3 components:

1. locutive force (locution);

2. illocutive force (illocution);

3. perlocutive force (perlocution).

Locutive force includes semantic meaning of the speech act (propositional meaning) and the very act of production the utterance (the act of uttering); thus, locution – the actual words uttered.

Illocutive force determines the character of the speech act: whether it is a promise, a threat, a complaint, etc.

Perlocutive force is the effect produced by a given speech act (utterance) upon the listener, i.e. the result which is intended; thus, perlocution - the effect of the illocution on the listener.

Pragmatic classification of utterances.*Direct and indirect speech acts.

Pragmatics suggests its own classification of sentences based on the character of illocutive force of the utterance. So, the following types of speech acts (SA) are distinguished:

• constative (representative)

• commissive

• performative

• directive

• quessitive

• expressive

Direct and indirect speech acts.

In pragmatics there is also classification of SA which is based on the correspondence between the structure (form) of the utterance and the expected illocutive force (communicative function). On this principle linguists distinguish direct and indirect speech acts.

There are three basic structural forms of the utterances (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and three general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request). When there is a direct relationship between the structure and the function the speech act is direct; i.e. when a declarative form is used to make a statement, interrogative – to make a question, imperative – to make a command or request. When there is an indirect relationship between the grammatical structure and illocutive force the speech act is indirect (for example, when a declarative sentence is used to make a request (not a statement).

lexikology