2. Дайте відповідь на запитання:

1. When did technical knowledge become widespread?

2. When were the wooden gears replaced by smaller cast-iron ones?

3. What did prevent the wider use of cast iron in machines?

4. What made it possible to produce for engineers tools for machining large castings?

3. Визначте вірне речення чи невірне згідно змісту тексту.

1. Although cast iron and bronze had by then been in use for many years, the technique of making cast-iron gears was unknown in the 17^th century.

2. Nevertheless, mill gears made both of wood and iron, remained in general use for high speeds and loads for many years.

3. After printing was invented in Germany in 1550 technical knowledge became widespread.

4. Cast-iron was of moderate quality and could be shaped, but was expensive too.

5. Until the Renaissance the teachings of the classical Greeks were known to only a few, through the Arab sources.

4. Перекладіть наступні речення з англійської мови на українську, звертаючи увагу на вживання інфінітиву.

1. He is said to be a good mathematician.

2. New deposits of oil and gas are expected to be found in the Far North of our country.

3. He is certain to come to the lecture.

4. These young engineers are likely to take part in our work.

5. He appears to have read a large number of books on this subject.

5. Перекладіть наступні речення з української мови на англійську, звертаючи увагу на зворот there + be.

1. Я  думаю, що сьогодні увечері, буде гроза.

2. Нікого не було удома, коли я прийшов.

3. Є потяг на Одесу, який відходить о  десятій  ранку.

4. У цій кімнаті на кожному столі має бути лампа.

5. Словник на полиці.

6. Оберіть вірний варіант.

1. His wife said she… to ring him.

a) was meaning b) has been meaning

c) had been meaning d) had meaning

2. She said she… about the party.

a) think b) thinks

c) was thinking d) is thinking

3. He asked her …to have pork.

a) that they were b) if they are

c) if they were going d) that they are

4. His wife asked… to have.

a) if what did he want b) what he wanted

c) that what he wanted d) if he wanted

5. We’ll have a picnic if it is fine, but what …if it rains?

a) shall we do b) shall we doing

c) to do d) we do

7. Утворіть форми Participle I та Participle II від наступних дієслів.

To go

To grow

To have

To smile

To order

ВАРІАНТ 10

1. Прочитайте та перекладіть українською мовою, перепишіть та письмово перекладіть весь текст.

Materials and production methods

Gears are among the most important components of all machines. The production of steel, sugar, paper, concrete or electricity all require modern gearing systems.

Thanks to the research and development efforts of manufactu­rers, gears are among the most reliable mechanical components. Yet because they are seldom seen, gears are often taken for granted. But design and manufacturing gears is no easy task. It requires a high level of engineering. Years of field experience and manu­facturing know-how were required to develop the modern gearing sys­tems.

The earliest evidence of gears comes from the Ancient Greece. The first gear school was founded by Ptolemy at Alexandria as early as 300 BC. It was staffed by the prominent scholars from Athens. The course of mechanics which was taught as an essential part of applied mathematics helped in many inventions of that time. Unfortunately, there are very few technical details available about the first geared mechanisms. The Greeks did not want to write tech­nical descriptions of their water clocks or water mills. The Romans considerably improved their practical work but, in turn, left few written records.

The machine makers of that time had a good range of tools: wooden lathe, saw, chisel, rasp; the blacksmith forge with hearth bellows, anvils and hammers had reached the stage which remained little changed until the 18th century.

With the collapse of Roman Empire, much engineering knowledge has lost in the times when people were busy with their theological problems and had no time for scientific researches. Until the Renaissance the teachings of the classical Greeks were known to only a few, through the Arab sources.

After printing was invented in Germany in 1440, technical know­ledge became widespread. The first printed engineering textbooks described various mechanisms with gears from the times of Vitruvius, a famous Roman architect and military engineer, and up to the 16th century. Although cast iron and bronze had by then been in use for many years, the technique of making cast-iron gears was unknown in the 17th century. The wooden gears were replaced by smaller cast iron ones only in 1770 after which they were worked by hammer, chisel and file. But the cost of cast iron prevented its wider use in machi­nes and the method of forming them was still not understood. Cast iron was of poor quality. Wrought iron was of moderate quality and could be shaped, but was expensive too. Great progress achieved in English iron industry in the 18th century made it possible to pro­duce for engineers tools for machining large castings with greater precision and far at low cost. Nevertheless, mill gears made both of wood and iron, remained in general use for high speeds and loads for many years.