Uncovering fraud in science

Suspicion of misconduct touches some of the greatest names in science. For example, the 2nd-century astronomer Claudius Ptolemy’s theories about astronomy were influential for more than a thousand years. Yet many historians now (19)__ that Ptolemy (20)__ the celestial observations he claimed.

Other immortal names (21)__. The 17th-century scientist Galileo, for instance, (22)__ as an outstanding example of the rational, thorough experimenter. After attempting to recreate some of his investigations, however, some historians doubt whether Galileo actually (23)__ all the experiments for which he is famous.

The thread of scientifically questionable work extends into the modern era as well. British psychologist Cyril Burt supposedly (24)__ “nature vs. nurture” experiments on twins who (25)__ apart—in support of the theory that intelligence (26)__ at birth rather than a trait that can be affected by upbringing or other factors. His findings were very influential in British educational policy; an intelligence quotients (IQ) test administered to 11-year olds, for example, determined whether a child (27)__ in an academic or vocational school. During his life, Burt (28)__ as one of the greatest psychologists. It was not until after Burt’s death in 1971 that scholars reviewed his data and found that in many instances Burt appeared to have simply fabricated data, describing subjects who never existed.

A19.	1)	are believed	3)	are believing
	2)	believe	4)	believed

A20.	1)	hasn’t made	3)	wasn’t made
	2)	hadn’t made	4)	didn’t make

A21.	1)	have been tainted	3)	had been tainted
	2)	tainted	4)	was tainted

A22.	1)	had been regarded	3)	has been regarded
	2)	were being regarded	4)	has regarded

A23.	1)	performed	3)	was performed
	2)	has performed	4)	had been performed

A24.	1)	will carry out	3)	had carried out
	2)	has carried out	4)	carried out

A25.	1)	has been raised	3)	had raised
	2)	was raised	4)	had been raised

A26.	1)	is primarily inherited	3)	was primarily being inherited
	2)	is primarily inheriting	4)	had primarily been inheriting

A27.	1)	will be placed	3)	will have been placed
	2)	would be placed	4)	would be placing

A28.	1)	will be regarded	3)	was regarded
	2)	has been regarding	4)	had regarded

Task 5.

Study the text and choose the correct variant.