2. Read and learn.

Language changes. Two hundred years from now, your great-great-great-great grandchildren will be puzzled when they see some words, that you use every day. Even if you had never heard of Robin Hood until you read "Robin Hood and Alan a Dale", some of its words would tell you it was written long ago. Words like that, words that are no longer in use, are called archaic.

Sometimes, context clues alone are enough to tell you the mean­ing of an archaic word. ("I have no money," then quoth the young man,/"No ready gold nor fee. . . .")" Sometimes, you need to look at footnotes, the glossary, or a dictionary to find out what an archa­ic word means. ("He did neither stint nor /ш/Until he came to the church.").

3. Write in your own words the excerpts from "Robin Hood and Alan a Dale". In your paraphrase, replace 'all the archaic words with familiar modern ones. Use a dictionary.

Example: "You must come before our master straight, Under yon greenwood tree."

We must take you to our leader right away under the nearby greenwood tree.

1. "What wilt thou give me?" said Robin Hood.

2. Then Robin he hasted over the plain.

3. "That musick best pleasethme."

4. With that came in a wealthy knight,

Which was both grave and old, And after him a finikin lass,

Did shine like glistering gold.

4. Hold discussions on the points:

• In the third stanza what is the mood of the young man? What is his mood in the fourth and fifth stanzas? What causes the change in his mood?

• What agreement do Robin Hood and Alan a Dale make? How does Robin help Alan a Dale?

• How does Robin overcome the Bishop's objections to the marriage of the maid and Alan a Dale?

• Point out examples of internal rhyme!

In earlier versions. Sir Gawain is the owner of the sword Excalibur and, like Sir Perceval in French and German versions, the most important knight of the Round Table. He is also the hero of the quest for the mysterious Holy Grail. In Malory's story, Sir Launceiot is the most important, although it is Sir. Galahad who finds the Holy Grail.

Malory was influenced more by the Christianised versions of the legend, with their taste for the tragic passions of courtly love, than by pagan nature myths.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Read the extracts from "The Death of Arthur77 consulting the Glossary.

2. Answer the questions. Give your reasons to prove your thoughts.

THE DEATH OF ARTHUR Extract 1

The heroic warrior, King Arthur, has been in France, in a half-hearted attempt to punish his friend Sir Launceiot for being the lover of his wife (Queen Guenevere). Hearing that his bastard son, Modred, has seized his kingdom in his absence, Arthur returns but is attacked by Modred's soldiers on landing in England. Sir Gawain, Arthur's nephew, is killed. Before the final battle. King Arthur has a dream.

So upon Trinity Sunday at night King Arthur dreamed a wonderful dream, and in his dream him seemed that he saw upon a chafflet a chair, and the chair was fast to a wheel, and thereupon sat King Arthur in the richest cloth of gold that might be made. And the King thought there was under him, far from him, a hideous deep black water, and therein were all manners of serpents, and worms, and wild beasts, foul and horrible. And suddenly the King thought that the wheel turned upside down, and he fell among the serpents, and every beast took him by a limb. And then the King cried as he lay in his bed. 'Help, help!'

And then knights, squires, and yeomen awaked the King, and then he was so amazed that he wist not where he was. And then so he awaked until it was nigh day, and then he fell on slumbering again, not sleeping nor thoroughly waking. So the King seemed verily that there came Sir Gawain unto him with a number of fair ladies with him;

Glossary

Trinity Sunday — the eighth Sunday after Easter; the Sunday

after Christ had appeared to his disciples; him seemed — it seemed to# him; chafflet — wooden platform (archaic); •

fast — firmly fixed;

yeomen — men who owned the land they farm; awaked — lay awake; wist — knew (archaic)', nigh — nearly (poetic);

the King seemed verily — it really seemed to the king (verily ~ archaic).

• What does the dream tell us about King Arthur's state of mind?

Extract 2

Arthur-has a sword called Excalibur. Before he dies he must return it to the Lady in the Lake, the mysterious half-supernatural creature who had given it to him.

* Can you guess which five of the following words will appear in the passage?

water waves threw heavy

prayer jewel barge (a wide-bottomed boat) rowed

'Therefore,' said King Arthur unto Sir Bedivere, 'take thou here Excalibur my good sword and go with it to yonder water's side; arid when thou comest there I charge thee throw my sword in that water and come again and tell me what thou sawest there.'

'My lord,' said Sir Bedivere, 'your commandment shall be done, and [I shall] lightly bring you word again.'

So Sir Bedivere departed. And by the way he beheld that noble sword, that the pommel and the haft was ail precious stones. And then he said to himself, 'If I throw this rich sword in the water, thereof shall never come good, but harm and loss.' And then Sir Bedivere hid Excalibur under a tree. And so, as soon as he might, he came again unto the King and said he had been at the water and had thrown the sword into the water.

'What saw thou there?' said the King.

'Sir,' he said, 'I saw nothing but waves and winds.'

'That is untruly said of thee,' said the King. 'And therefore go thou lightly again and do my commandment; as thou art to me lief and dear, spare not, but throw it in.'

Then Sir Bedivere returned again and took the sword in his hand. And yet him thought sin and shame to throw away that noble sword. And so eft he hid the. sword and returned again and told the King that he had been at the water and done his commandment.

'What sawest thou there?' said the King.

'Sir,' he said, '1 saw nothing but waters wap and waves wan.1

*Ah, traitor unto,me and untrue,,' said King Arthur, 'now hast thou betrayed me twice.. Who would have weened that thou that hast been to me so lief and dear, and thou art named a noble knight and would betray me for the riches of this sword. But now go again light­

22

ly, for thy long tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for I have taken cold. And but if thou do now as I bid thee, if ever I may see thee і shall slay thee mine own hands, for thou wouldest for my rich sword see me dead.'

Then Sir Bedivere departed and went to the sword and lightly took it up, and so he went to the water's side; and there he bound the girdle about the Jiilts, and threw the sword as far into the water as he might. And there came an arm and a hand above the water and took it and clutched it, and shook it thrice and brandished; and then vanished away the hand with the sword into the water. So Sir Bedivere came again to the King and told him what he saw.

'Alas,' said the King, 'help me hence, for I dread me I have tar­ried overlong.'

Then Sir Bedivere took'the King upon his back and so went with him to that water's side. And when they were at the water's side, even fast by the bank hoved a little barge with many fair ladies in it; and among them all was a queen; and all they had black hoods, and all they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur.

'Now put me into that barge,' said the King; and so he did soft­ly. And there received him three ladies with great mourning, and so they set them down. And in one of their laps King Arthur laid his head, and then the queen said, 'Ah, my dear brother, why have ye tarried so long from me? Alas, this wound on your head hath caught overmuch cold.' And anon they rowed frontward the land.

Glossary

yonder — over there; lightly — quickly; beheld — looked at;

pommel and the haft — handle and the rounded knob on top;

That is untrully said of thee — You are not telling me the truth;

lief — beloved (archaic)]

him thought — it seemed to him;

eft — again (archaic);

waters wap and waves wan — waters wash the shore and waves

grow dark (archaic); weened — imagined (archaic); tarrying — delay; mine — with my; girdle — sword belt; hilts — handles; brandished — waved; hence — from here; fast — close; hoved — waited; set them down — sat down.

• Why do you think Sir Bedivere at first disobeyed King Arthur?

• What does the final image of King Arthur in the boat suggest?

THOMAS MORE

Thomas More is the first English humanist of the Renaissance. The word 'humanist' was first used by Italian scholars to refer to a teacher of the studia humanitatis — the language and literature of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece. The aim of such teachers was to bridge the gap between the classical period and their own. The humanists were interested in the ancient classics not only because they where models of literary style, but also because they were guides to the understanding of life. This understanding was in contrast to the emphasis of many medieval scholars, who taught that life on earth should be despiced. Such persons viewed human beings as sin­ful creatures who should devote their lives to trying to earn heaven. Humanists rejected this view of the sinful nature of humanity. The movement has its origins in the Italian poet and scholar Petrarch (i304—1374) but didn't reach England until the sixteenth century. Education to the humanists meant the training of the "universal man". Such a person was skilled in many fields of knowledge, includ­ing art, science, sports, and politics. Sixteenth-century humanists were Christians, even though their critical spirit eventually brought them into conflict with- the Church. The greatest of the European humanists were the Dutchman Erasmus (1466—1536) and,His English friend Sir Thomas More.

Thomas More was a devoted churchman who died as a martyr. But "Utopia", his best-known book, criticized the society of his time.

24

In earlier versions, Sir Gawain is the owner of the sword Excalibur and, like Sir Perceval in French and German versions, the most important knight of the Round Table. He is also the hero of the quest for the mysterious Holy Grail. In Malory's story, Sir Launcelot is the most important, although it is Sir. Galahad who finds the Holy Grail.

Malory was influenced more by the Christianised versions of the legend, with their taste for the tragic passions of courtly love, than by pagan nature myths.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Read the extracts from "The Death of Arthur'9 consulting the Glossary.

2. Answer the questions. Give your reasons to prove your thoughts.

THE DEATH OF ARTHUR Extract 1

The heroic warrior, King Arthur, has been in France, in a half-hearted attempt to punish his friend Sir Launcelot for being the lover of his wife (Queen Guenevere). Hearing that his bastard son, Modred, has seized his 'kingdom in his absence, Arthur returns but is attacked by Modred's soldiers on landing in England. Sir Gawain, Arthur's nephew, is killed. Before the final battle. King Arthur has a dream.

So upon Trinity Sunday at night King Arthur dreamed a wonderful dream, and in his dream him seemed that he saw upon a chafflet a chair, and the chair was fast to a wheel, and thereupon sat King Arthur in the richest cloth of gold that might be made. And the King thought there was under him, far from him, a hideous deep black water, and therein were all manners of serpents, and worms, and wild beasts, foul and horrible. And suddenly the King thought that the wheel turned upside down, and he fell among the serpents, and every beast took him by a limb. And then the King cried as he lay in his bed. 'Help, help!'

And then knights, squires, and yeomen awaked the King, and then he was so amazed that he wist not where he was. And then so he awaked until it was nigh day, and then he fell on slumbering again, not sleeping nor thoroughly waking. So the King seemed verily that there came Sir Gawain unto him with a number of fair ladies with him:

Glossary

Trinity Sunday — the eighth Sunday after Easter; the Sunday

after Christ had appeared to his disciples; him seemed — it seemed to him; chafflet — wooden platform {archaic); ,

fast — firmly fixed;

yeomen — men who owned the land they farm; awaked — lay awake; wist — knew (archaic), nigh — nearly (poetic)',

the King seemed verily — it really seemed to the king (verily ~ archaic).

• What does the dream tell us about King Arthur's state of mind?

Extract 2

Arthur-has a sword called Excalibur. Before he dies he must return it to the Lady in the Lake, the mysterious half-supernatural creature who had given it to him.

• Can you guess which five of the following words will appear in the passage?

water waves threw heavy

prayer jewel barge (a wide-bottomed boat) rowed

Therefore,' said King Arthur unto Sir Bedivere, 'take thou here Excalibur my good sword and go with it to yonder water's side; arid when thou comest there I charge thee throw my sword in that water and come again and tell me what thou sawest there.'

'My lord,' said Sir Bedivere, 'your commandment shall be done, and [I shall] lightly bring you word again.'

So Sir Bedivere departed. And by the way he beheld that noble sword, that the pommel and the haft was all precious stories. And then he said to himself, 'If I throw this rich sword in the water, thereof shall never come good, but harm and toss.' And then Sir Bedivere hid Excalibur under a tree. And so, as soon as he might, he came again unto the King and said he had been at the water and had thrown the sword into the water.

'What saw thou there?' said the King. • 'Sir,' he said, 4 saw nothing but waves and winds.'

That is untruly said of thee,' said the King. 'And therefore go thou lightly again and do my commandment; as thou art to me lief and dear, spare not, but throw it in.'

Then Sir Bedivere returned again and took the sword in his hand. And yet him thought sin and shame to throw away that noble sword. And so eft he hid the sword and returned again and told the King that he had been at the water and done his commandment.

'What sawest thou there?' said the King.

'Sir,' he said, 4 saw nothing but waters wap and waves wan.'

*Ah, traitor unto me and untrue,' said King Arthur, 'now hast thou betrayed me twice.. Who would have weened that thou that hast been to me so lief and dear, and thou art named a noble knight and would betray me for the riches of this sword. But now go again light­

21

ly, for thy long tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for і have taken cold. And but if thou do now as I bid thee, if ever і may see thee І shall slay thee mine own hands, for thou wouldest for my rich sword see me dead/

Then Sir Bedivere departed and went to the sword and lightly took it up, and so he went to the water's side; and there he bound the girdle about the hilts, and threw the sword as far into the water as he might. And there came an arm and a hand above the water and took it and clutched it, and shook it thrice and brandished; and then vanished away the hand with the sword into the water. So Sir Bedivere came again to the King and told him what he saw.

'Alas,' said the King, 'help me hence, for 1 dread me 1 have tar­ried overlong.'

Then Sir Bedivere took "the King upon his back and so went with him to that water's side. And when they were at the water's side, even fast by the bank hoved a little barge with many fair ladies in it; and among them all was a queen; and all they had black hoods, and all they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur.

'Now put me into that barge,' said the King; and so he did soft­ly. And there received him three ladies with great mourning, and so they set them down. And in one of their laps King Arthur laid his head, and then the queen said, 'Ah, my dear brother, why have ye tarried so long from me? Alas, this wound on your head hath caught overmuch cold.' And anon they rowed fromward the land.

Glossary

yonder — over there; lightly — quickly; beheld — looked at;

pommel and the haft — handle and the rounded knob on top;

That is untrully said of thee — You are not telling me the truth;

lief — beloved (archaic)]

him thought — it seemed to him;

eft again (archaic);

waters wap and waves wan — waters wash the shore and waves

grow dark (archaic); weened — imagined (archaic); tarrying — delay; mine — with my; girdle — sword belt; hilts — handles; brandished — waved; hence — from here; fast — close; hoved — waited; set them down — sat down.

• Why do you think Sir Bedivere at first disobeyed King jjirthur?

• What does the final image of King Arthur in the boat suggest?

THOMAS MORE (1478-1535)

Thomas More is the first English humanist of the Renaissance. The word 'humanist' was first used by Italian scholars to refer to a teacher of the studia humanitatis — the language and literature of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece. The aim of such teachers was to bridge the gap between the classical period and their own. The humanists were interested in the ancient classics not only because they where models of literary style, but also because they were guides to the understanding of life. This understanding was in contrast to the emphasis of many medieval scholars, who taught that life on earth should be despiced. Such persons viewed human beings as sin­ful creatures who should devote their lives to trying to earn heaven. Humanists rejected this view of the sinful nature of humanity. The movement has its origins in the Italian poet and scholar Petrarch (1304—1374) but didn't reach England until the sixteenth century. Education to the humanists meant the training of the "universal man''. Such a person was skilled in many fields of knowledge, includ­ing art, science, sports, and politics. Sixteenth-century humanists were Christians, even though their critical spirit eventually brought them into conflict with' the Church. The greatest of the European humanists were the Dutchman Erasmus (1466—3536) and,his English friend Sir Thomas More.

Thomas More was a devoted churchman who died as a martyr. But "Utopia", his best-known book, criticized the society of his time.

22

TJfy Thomas More was bom in London in 1478.

^ Educated at Oxford, he could write a most beau-

tiful classical Latin. At Oxford More met a foreign humanist, the writer Erasmus of Rotterdam (Holland), and made friends with him. Erasmus believed in the common sense of man and taught that men ought to think for themselves, and not merely to believe things to be true because their fathers, or the priest, or the Pope had said they were true.

Thomas More began life as a lawyer. During the reign of Henry VII he became a member of Parliament. He was an active-minded man. He was.the first great writer on social and political subjects in England.

Fourteen years after Henry VIII came to the throne, More was made Speaker of the House of Commons. The Tudor monarchy was an absolute monarchy, and" Parliament had very little power to resist the king. There was, however, one matter on which Parliament was very determined. That was the right to vote or to refuse to vote money. Once when the King wanted money and asked Parliament to vote him £800000, the members sat silent. When Parliament was called togeth­er again, Thomas More spoke up and urged that the request be refused. After a long discussion a sum less than half the amount requested by the King was voted, and that sum was to be spread over a period of four years.

Thomas More was an earnest Catholic, but he was not liked by the priests and the Pope on account of his writings and the ideas he taught. After Henry VIII quarrelled with the Pope he gathered around himself all the enemies of the Pope, and so in 1529 More was made Lord Chancellor (highest judge of the House pf Lords). He had not wanted the post because he was as much against the king's absolute power in England as he was against the Pope. More soon fell a victim to the King's anger. He refused to swear that he would obey Henry as the head of the English Church, and was thrown into the Tower. Parliament, to please the King, declared More guilty of treason, and he was beheaded in the Tower in 1535.

Works ^he humanists of all European countries com-

municated in the Latin language* and their best works were written in Latin.

The English writings of Thomas More include: discussions on political subjects, biographies, poetry.

His style is simple, colloquial and has an unaffected ease.

The work by which he is best remembered today is "Utopia" which was written in Latin in the year 1516. It has now been trans­lated into all European languages.

"Utopia" (which in Greek means "nowhere") is the name of a non-existent island. This work is divided into two books.

In the first, the author gives a profound and truthful picture of the people's sufferings and points put the social evils existing in England at the time.

In the second book More presents his ideal of what the future society should be like.

There is no private property in Utopia. The people own every­thing in common and enjoy complete economic equality. Everyone cares for his neighbour's good, and each has a clean and healthy house to live in. Labour is the most essential feature of Іife in Utopia, but no one is overworked. Everybody is engaged in useful work nine hours a day. After work, they indulge in! sport and games and spend much time in improving their minds (learning). All teaching is free, and the parents do not have to pay any school fees. (More wrote about things unknown in any country at that time, though they are natural with us in our days.)

For magistrates, the Utopians Choose men whom they think to be most fit to protect the welfare population. When electing their government, the people give their voices secretly. There are few laws and no lawyers at all, but these fewlaws must be strictly obeyed.

"Virtue," says Thomas More, "lives according to Nature." The greatest of all pleasures is perfect health. Man must be healthy and wise.

Thomas More's "Utopia" was the first literary work in which the ideas of Communism appeared. It was highly esteemed by all the humanists of Europe in More's time and again grew very popular with the socialists of the 19th century. After More a tendency to write fantastic novels on social reforms began in literature, and many such works appeared in various countries.

The word "utopia" has become a byword and is used in modern English to denote an unattainable ideal, usually in social and polit­ical matters.

THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 1485-1660

This word, meaning rebirth, is commonly applied to the period of transition from the medieval to the modern world in Western Europe. The break from medievalism was gradual, some Renaissance attitudes going back into the heart of the medieval period and some medieval traits persisting through the Renaissance.

The period in English literature generally called the Renaissance is usually considered to have begun a little before 1500 and to have lasted until the Commonwealth Interregnum (1649—1660). It con­sisted of the Early Tudor Age (1500—1557), the Elizabethan Age (1558—1603), the Jacobean Age (1603—1625), and the Caroline Age (1625—1642).

From 1485 to 1603, the royal House (family) of Tudor ruled England. Queen Elizabeth t, the last Tudor monarch, reigned from 1558 to 1603.

A number of developments contributed to the brilliant literary output of the Elizabethan Age. One of the most important occurred in 1476, when William Caxton set up the first printing press in England. Before that time, books and all other literary works had to be slowly and laboriously copied by hand. Printing made it possible to produce far more books and at far lower cost. The greater avail­ability of books and their lower cost stimulated a desire among many people to learn how to read. As literacy increased, so did the demand for more and more books.

During the 1500s, English scholars joined other European schol­ars in rediscovering the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, which they had largely neglected for centuries. Translations of Greek and particularly Roman literary works strongly influenced Elizabethan writers. In addition, new literary forms were introduced into English literature. For example, English authors adopted directly or modi­fied such forms as the essay'from France and the sonnet from Italy.