Vocabulary

stratum – пласт

preliminary – выравнивание

levelling – выравнивание

shallow – мелкий, неглубокий

footing – основание, фундамент

pile – свая

intermediate -промежуточный

caisson -кессон

cofferdam – кессон для подводных работ

grillage – решетка, ростверк

buoyancy – плавучесть

basement – основание, фундамент, цокольный этаж

net – сеть, сетка

in situ – на месте

prebored hole – предварительно просверленное отверстие

I. Choose the right form of the adjective.

1. The loads that a structure imposes on the ground reach the level of the … floor through walls, piers, or columns.

a) lower b) lowest c) the lowest

2. Therefore, some means have had to be provided to spread the loads down to … ground at a lower level.

a) the firmest b) firmer c) firm

3. The pneumatic caisson was a development of … cofferdam.

a) the earlier b) the earliest c) earliest

4. The … reinforced-concrete piles are nowadays cast in situ in prebored hole.

a) heavy b) heavier c) the heaviest

5. … earlier spread footing were substituted by grillages of steel beams.

a) Efficient b) the less efficient c) The most efficient

II. Complete the following sentences

1. Unfortunately, such … have rarely been found in the places where men have wanted to build.

a) environment b) territory c) strata

2. There were three means that were already widely practiced in … .

a) Egypt b) Roman times c) ancient times

3. The piles were almost always of … .

a) timber b) stone c) concrete

4. Once hammered into the ground, they acted as …. .

a) walls b) cross-beams c) columns

5. With the exception of the continuous concrete raft these methods continued in use well into the … .

a) 19^th century b) late 17^th century c) early 20^th century

Exercises

I. Suggest the Russian equivalents

• to reach the ground through walls, piers, or columns;

• the ground surface;

• preliminary leveling;

• to spread the loads more widely;

• shallow excavations;

• the spread footing, piling, and the continuous raft;

• the pneumatic caisson;

• grillage of steel beams;

• exploitation of the buoyancy principle;

• to displace a weight of earth comparable with the total weight of the building;

II. There are some notes the student made after reading the text “Foundation”. Did he remember everything right? Read his notes and correct them if necessary.

1. The loads that a structure imposes on the ground normally reach the ground through walls, piers, or columns.

2. There were three types of foundations that were widely practiced in ancient Egypt.

3. the piles were almost always made of timber.

4. The spread footing and piling were not used in the 19^th century.

5. Deep excavation was necessary for piling.

6. The pneumatic caisson was a development of the earlier cofferdam.

7. For tall building grillage of steel beams were used.

Lesson 6

SHELLS

Warming-up

1. How can you describe the form of the shell?

2. What are shells used for?

Read the text and tell about the advantages of the shell.

The tem shell is used to denote a spanning and space-enclosing element of domed or other vaultlike form, but with a thickness and order of magnitude less than was usual for these masonry and mass-concrete forms. Like the latter, a shell may be curved in two directions or in one only; but the two curvatures of the doubly curved form may be of opposite sense, like those of a saddle – a possibility almost restricted to the fan vault in masonry - and the singly curved form may be taken to include barrel-shaped and folded or corrugated forms that span along the length of the barrel or the folds, and act as deep beams. To achieve the reduction in thickness, tensile strength must be provided in the shell itself, or at the level of support, or in both places, in accordance with the requirements of the surface geometry the pattern of loading, and the type of support.

The shelf, together with the doubly curved tensile membrane or cable net, has so enlarged the formal vocabulary of architecture that it will continue to play an important role where economy is not the overriding consideration. The Saarinen/Ammann and Whitney roof of the TWA Terminal Building a Kennedy Airport demonstrates its versatility at the limits of practicality; Jorn Utzon’s original impracticable proposal of sharply ridged shells for the Sydney Opera house went beyond these limits and called for a different arched type of construction.