1. Circle a), b), or c) to complete the sentences.

1. The spanning of substantially wider gaps … true arches constructed on centering from large number of bricks.

a) received b) called for c) exceeded

2. From the first century AD the Romans began …. Concrete in place of cut stone for all the longest spans.

a) to bring b) to erect c) to use

3. The chief merit of the pointed profile …. the ease with which it could be used in ribbed vaults of any plan shape.

a) proved b) was c) resembled

2.Complete the sentences

1. The arch has been the chief means of overcoming the spanning limitations of single blocks of stone or lengths of . .. .

a) timber b) steel c) form

2. In ancient times, there was/were …… type(s) of arches.

a) many b) three c) one

3. Small true brick arches appeared first in … .

a) Greece b) Byzantium c) Mesopotamia and Egypt

4. Gothic arches were usually built in … .

a) timber b) stone c) concrete

5. Early cast-iron arches of the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries all closely resembled … .

a) reinforced concrete arches b) true brick arches c) braced timber arches

Exercises

1. Give the Russian equivalents

• the chief means of overcoming the spanning limitations of single blocks of stone;

• the 3^rd millennium BC;

• two long blocks inclined toward one another;

• the false or corbelled arch;

• stone voussoirs;

• the necessary stiffness;

• tubular cross section;

2. Divide the verbs in the box into two groups: regular or irregular. Give three forms of the verb.

Example: to consist-consisted-consisted

to know-knew-known

to consist; to know; to survive; to construct;

to begin; to build; to depart; to give;

to be; to resemble; to use;

3. Prove the following statements using to the information from the text.

1. Arches were widely used in ancient architecture.

2. Spans were seldom more than 2 metres

3. Small true arches were constructed in brick.

4. The Islamic pointed arches were the first to appear.

5. The pointed profile was universal.

Lesson 2

BEAMS

Warming-up

1. What is the function of beams?

2. What are the earliest examples of the usage of beams?

Read the text and say what materials were used for the construction of beams; what material is used now?

BEAMS

Already in the early 3^rd millennium BC, in Zozer’s tomb complex at Saqqara, blocks of stone were being deliberately shaped for use as ceiling beams instead of just used as found. The fact that their undersides were cut to a rounded form suggests an even earlier use of cut timber, probably palm togs.

This is to be expected, since timber is easier to cut and transport. Apart from its inferior durability, it is also a more appropriate material because the structural action of a beam involves internal tension as well as compression. Besides, timber, unlike stone, has a tensile strength along the grain to match its compressive strength. With stone there was only one possibility – the use of metal reinforcement at the bottom to improve the tensile weakness.

Iron beams became structurally important elements only in the late 18^th century with the widespread introduction of cast iron.

Reinforced concrete became a highly versatile structural material, since the strength of the concrete, the overall geometry of the element, and the quantity and placement of the reinforcement rods were all under the designer’s control.