E.G., house, room, boy, telephone, stove

3. Culturally oriented words (realia):

1. idionyms, internal cultural terms, denoting cultural peculiarities of English-speaking countries and peoples.

E.g., Green Beret (U.S.), the City (Brit.)

2. xenonyms, external cultural terms

E.g., borscht (Russ.), tanka (Japanese)

International words, words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source.

E.g., школа (Russ.), school, l’ecole (Fr.), la escuela (Sp.), die Schule (Germ.), kool (Estonian), etc., fr. schōle (Gk)

False friends, words that have the same or similar form in two (or more) languages but different meanings in each.

E.g., …copies of Horse and Hound and Country Life filled a magazine rack to overflowing. (Francis. Longshot)

Продуктовый магазин

Word formation morphological structure of english words

Morpheme is the minimum meaningful language unit, which is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. Morphemes occur in speech as constituent parts of words.

Word is the minimum free form that can constitute a complete utterance. It is an association of a given meaning with a given sound complex; it is normally uninterruptable in speech, and when written or printed has spaces on either side.

Bound morpheme normally occurs only in combination with other ( bound or free ) morphemes; not free.

E.g., -s, -ing, -ed; in-, de-; -ly, -ness; -dub- (dubious, indubitable), eu- (eulogy, euphony, euphoria); -man- hand (manual, manifest, emancipate, mandatory).

Free morpheme is capable of forming a word without adding other morphemes.

E.g., togetherness – together; barrelful – barrel

According to the role morphemes play in constructing words they are subdivided into roots and affixes.

The root of a word is commonly a morpheme which carries the main lexical meaning and cannot be further analyzed, and which underlies related derivatives of the word.

E.g., righteous, rightful, rightly (free morpheme)

synchronize, chronicle, anachronism, chronic (bound morpheme).

Word family is a group of words having a common root as their basis. (see prec. examples)

Affix is a derivational or functional bound morpheme added to the root or stem of the word. Affixes change lexical, lexico-grammatical or grammatical meaning of the word.

Derivational affixes serve to form new words. Derivational affixes change or modify lexical and/or lexico-grammatical meaning of words.

Functional affixes inflections, outer formatives, endings serve to convey grammatical meaning.

E.g., write + -s = writes, look + -ed = looked, fine + -est = finest (functional affixes)

write + -ative = writative, look + -er = looker, fine + re- = refine (derivational affixes)

Prefix is a derivational affix standing before the root or stem and modifying the word meaning.

E.g., build v.– rebuild v.

productive adj. – nonproductive adj.

continue v. – discontinue v.

fire n. – afire adj.

foul adj. – befoul v.

Suffix is a derivational affix following the root or stem and forming a word in a different part of speech or a different word-class.

E.g., build v. - builder n.

continue v. - continual adj.

mob n. - mobster n.

Infix (Tmesis) is a form inserted within the main base of a word.

E.g., stand ( cf. stood )

to-us-ward (cf. toward us )

I can’t find it any-blooming-where.

Stem is a part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. A stem containing one or more derivational affixes is a derived stem. A stem containing two or more root morphemes is a compound stem.

E.g., specify – specifying – specifies – specified (a derived stem) spectrographic ( a compound stem )

According to the number of morphemes in the word and the relations between them we distinguish the following structural types of words:

1) Root words, containing one free root morpheme: car, true, red, go.

2) Derivatives, containing one root morpheme and one or more derivational affixes: disCOURagement, FAULTless, PEOPLEhood

3) Compounds, consisting of two or more stems: chalkboard, people- oriented.

4) Compound derivatives, consisting of two or more stems with a derivational affix referring to the combination as a whole, not to one of its elements: honeymoon +-er, wholeheart + -ed.

Each of the structural word types can result from the following word formation processes (word-building mechanisms): 1) Derivation (affixation); 2) Compounding; 3) Conversion; 4) Abbreviation; 5) Blending; 6) Backformation; 7) Borrowing (calque).

Word-building or morphological analysis helps to see into the word-building pattern of the word. Morphological analysis is based on the Immediate Constituents (IC). An IC is any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger expression. The method is based on the fact that a word analyzable into morphemes is involved in certain structural correlations (oppositions). The morpheme boundaries in a word are determined on the basis of comparison with other words. Breaking a word into IC helps to observe in each cut the structural order of constituents which may differ from their actual sequence. The procedure of IC analysis is reduced to the recognition and classification of the same and different morphemes and the same and different word patterns. Such analysis can continue until the ultimate constituents (UC) are reached. IC analysis helps to determine the meaning of the complex words.

E.g., Their imperturbableness, their air that nothing has happened renews our guarantee.

1.imperturbable+-ness *im-+perturbableness *imperturb+-ableness	(-ness, abstract noun suffix meaning state, quality; added to adjectival stems: kindness, fondness, daintiness. A man…cool and quite English, imperturbable)
2. im-+perturbable *imperturb +- able	(im-, a negative prefix added to adjectival stems: impossible, impolite, immodest. Perturbable, liable to be disqieted or agitated)
3. perturb +-able	(-able, adjectival suffix meaning able/worthy to be V-ed, added to verbal stems: readable, forgettable. Highly perturbed, he wondered what was coming next).
*per-+turbable	(per-, meaning through, throughout: perfume, perforate, peruse; *turbable)
4. per-+turb	(per-, persist, persecute, perspire; turb-: turbid, turbulate, turbine, disturb; fr. Lat. turba, turmoil, crowd).

im-+ (per-+turb)+- able + -ness: calmness

Bathysiderodromorphobia

1. bathysiderodromo + phobia). Phobia is a free root morpheme; so the word under analysis is a compound. Phobia : fear (phobia, a persistent, morbid or insane fear of a specific thing or group of things: acrophobia – fear of heights, bathophobia – fear of depth, ecophobia – fear of home, theatrophobia – fear of theaters)

2. bathysiderodrom + -o- (-o-, a linking vowel in compounds: speedo-meter, thermometer, drunkometer, Anglo-Russian)

3. bathy + siderodrom. Bathy: deep, in the depth (bathyal, having to do with the deeper levels of the ocean , bathyscaph, an apparatus for deep-sea exploration, bathynaut – a deep-sea explorer, bathygram – a graphic record of water depth obtained from an echo sounder)

4. Sidero+drom. Drom: track, course, a running, road (dromedary, the swift one-humped camel of Arabia fr. Gk Dromos – a running;

Dromos [Archeology], a passage often between rows of columns, leading to a temple fr. Gk Dromos a running, race course, an avenue; hippodrome in ancient Greece and Rome an oval track for horse races; airdrome [Brit. Aerodrome], large tract of open level ground, including all buildings and fixtures for the operation of aircraft).

5. Sider + -o- . Sider-: iron (siderography, the art of engraving on steel; siderolite, a meteorite composed of a mixed mass of iron and stone; siderosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of the lungs caused by inhalation of iron particles; siderurgy, the art of working in iron and steel; -o-, linking vowel)

Bathysiderodromophobia, fear of deep iron roads, i. e. fear of railroads (tracks with parallel steel rails) in the depth (i. e. underground) – fear of subways, undergrounds or metros.