Міністерство науки та освіти України

Чернівецький національний університет

імені Юрія Федьковича

Бурбак О.Ф., Романова Т.О.

АНГЛІЙСЬКА МОВА

ДЛЯ НАУКОВЦІВ

Чернівці

„Рута”

2006

ББК 81.432.1.-923

Б 912

Бурбак О.Ф., Романова Т.О. Англійська мова для науковців: Навчальний посібник. – Чернівці: Рута, 2006.

Друкується за ухвалою редакційно-видавничої ради ЧНУ

Відповідальний за випуск: Огуй Олександр Дмитрович,

доктор філологічних наук, професор

Редактор: Бурбак Олена Федорівна,

кандидат філологічних наук, доцент

Навчальний посібник спрямований на розвиток навичок усної та письмової мови наукового характеру. В ньому активізуються мовні засоби, властиві стилю науково-технічної літератури, а також мовні особливості, притаманні усному та письмовому науковому спілкуванню. Курс складається з 10 уніфікованих уроків, кожен з яких містить сучасні оригінальні англомовні тексти з коментарями, лексико-граматичні вправи та кліше, що застосовуються при написанні статей, доповідей, резюме, тез. Кожний урок супроводжується діагностичним тестом. Наводиться зразок підсумкового лексико-граматичного тесту, наближеного до вимог TOEFL. В додатку міститься матеріал стосовно читання символів, формул та скорочень, прийнятих в сучасній науково-технічній літературі.

Навчальний посібник призначений для науковців, аспірантів, магістрів, слухачів реферативних груп, а також для тих, хто бажає вдосконалити знання англійської мови професійного спрямування.

ISBN

ПЕРЕДМОВА

Посібник складається з 10 уроків (Units), тестових завдань до кожного уроку, зразка підсумкового лексико-граматичного тесту та додатку. Кожен урок містить основний текст загальнонаукової тематики та низку лексичних вправ “Word Study”, спрямованих на краще засвоєння та активізацію лексики уроку. Граматичні вправи з підрозділу “Structure Study” ставлять за мету повторення основних розділів граматики англійської мови. Підрозділ “Scientific Writing”вміщує ключові слова, притаманні науковому стилю, та пов’язані з ними структури, що становлять мінімальний контекст для даних слів. Виконання запропонованих вправ сприятиме активізації структур в практиці письмового та усного спілкування. Кожний урок завершується статтею з англомовних джерел, пов’язаною з тематикою уроку, та завданнями до неї.

По завершенню вивчення кожного уроку рекомендується виконати діагностичний тест, вміщений за відповідним до уроку номером в кінці посібника. Зразок підсумкового лексико-граматичного тесту наближений до стандартних вимог міжнародних тестів з іноземних мов типу TOEFL.

Додаток містить грецький алфавіт в англомовній транскрипції, зразки читання математичних символів, формул та рівнянь, хімічних символів, формул та реакцій, найбільш вживані англійські та латинські скорочення, характерні для наукового стилю, та схему, що пропонується для реферування статей.

Посібник призначений для науковців, аспірантів та здобувачів вченого ступеню кандидата наук, магістрів, слухачів реферативних груп та всіх тих, хто бажає удосконалити навички усної та письмової мови наукового стилю.

CONTENTS

ПЕРЕДМОВА…………………………………………………………. 3

UNIT 1. WHAT IS SCIENCE…............................................................ 5

UNIT 2. THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE…………………………… 14

UNIT 3. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD……………………………. 23

UNIT 4. PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE………………………… 33

UNIT 5. RESEARCH WORK……………………………………….. 42

UNIT 6. ‘DIRECTED’ RESEARCH………………………………… 52

UNIT 7. SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION………………………. 63

UNIT 8. PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT……………… 72

UNIT 9. SCIENCE AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION… 81

UNIT 10. SCIENCE AND THE FUTURE………………………….. 92

TESTS……………………………………………………………….. 103

MODEL LEXICAL-GRAMMATICAL TEST……………………. 113

APPENDIX:

I. HOW TO READ GREEK ALPHABET…………………………. 117

II. HOW TO READ MATEMATICAL SIGNS AND SYMBOLS.. 118

III.HOW TO READ MATEMATICAL FORMULAS……………. 124

IV.HOW TO READ CHEMICAL FORMULAS………………….. 136

V. LATIN ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………. 138

VI. SCIENTIFIC –TECHNICAL ABBREVIATIONS…………….. 138

VII. HOW TO RENDER ARTICLES/TEXTS……………………. 145

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНИХ ДЖЕРЕЛ…………………………..146

Unit 1

Text: What is science

Grammar: Article. Noun

Scientific Writing: Problem

What Is Science

What is science? Science is first of all human activity. Sciences arouse out of man's efforts to survive, his natural curiosity, his search for order in the surrounding world. It arouses from man's efforts to under­stand nature and himself.

In science you study nature and human nature, living nature and nonliving nature. The fundamental aim of science is to describe the facts of nature and natural events. The basis of science is the belief that natu­ral events have natural causes. When science looks for the cause of any given natural phenomenon, it is simply looking for a set of circumstances which gave rise to the event, circumstances which themselves grew out of a still earlier set of conditions. Science makes this search by observing facts, by organizing these facts in orderly fashion.

A secondary purpose of science is the formulation, on the basis of experimental facts, of principles and theories which are the generali­zations and which will lead to new studies and increased knowledge.

What distinguishes science from other activities is that it enables person to see the world “as it really is”. This may mean different things to different persons at different times. Over the ages, science has found the world to be flat at one time, round at another and more recently "egg-shaped", to be the centre of the universe and, later only a speck in the cosmos, to be made up of four fundamental substances and, later, of more than one hundred fundamental substances.

This does not mean that science is unreliable. That means that sci­ence keeps pace with the times. Every new discovery widens the hori­zon and increases the extent of our contact with unexplored areas.

We all know that science plays an important role in the societies in which we live. Through technology, science improves the structure of society and helps person to gain increasing control over his environment. To science we owe most of our comforts, our leisure, our health and longevity, our ability to mould environment, to communicate instantly and to move swiftly over the Earth.

Science is an occupation for people who are open-minded, who are capable of putting their beliefs to many tests. There is always room for freshness, newness, brightness in it. The openness of science makes it the most advanced kind of thought humanity has so far developed.

Notes to the text

1. set of circumstances — a number of conditions or facts, connected with an event or person, that belong together be­cause they are similar or complementary to each other;

2. to give rise to something---to be the cause of something, to suggest;

3. in orderly fashion – in well-arranged order

4. to keep pace with the times- to progress;

5. to increase the extent of our contact with unexplored areas- to widen and deepen the research;

6. to mould the environment- to guide, control or influence the surrounding world.

Active Vocabulary

1 event - подія, явище

2. cause - причина

3. phenomenon - явище, феномен

4. circumstance - обставина, умова

5. condition - умова, передумова

6. search - пошук, дослідження

7. aim - мета, завдання

8. purpose - мета, ціль

9. generalization - узагальнення

10. curiosity- допитливість

11. environment - довкілля, навколишнє середовище 12. leisure - відпочинок

13. longevity - довголіття

14. occupation - заняття, професія

15. room - місце, простір

16. advance - поступ, прогрес

17. to look for - шукати

18. to give rise to smth. - спричинювати, викликати (щось)

19. to distinguish smth. from smth. - відрізнити щось від чогось

20. to be made up of - складатися з

21. to explore - вивчати, досліджувати

Comprehension

1. What is the fundamental aim of science?

2. What lies in the basis of science?

3. How is scientific search organized?

4. How did scientific views change in time?

5. What is the role of science in society?

6. How does science influence our everyday life?

7. What makes science the most advanced kind of thought?

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:

явище природи, основна мета, шукати, сукупність обставин, спо­стерігати, факти, розміщувати щось у правильному порядку, відрізняти щось від чогось, складатися з чогось, природна допитливість, контролювати довкілля, розширювати горизонт, недосліджені області, спроможний неодноразово перевіряти свої переконання, прогресивна думка.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the text:

1. Science grew out of … 2. Science looks for … 3. Science enables man …. 4. All natural events have… 5. Scientific search organizes natural phenomena in ... 6. Principles and theories are generalizations of... 7. Scientific discoveries improve … 8 Science is an occupation for people who

Exercise 3. Give the opposites of:

living, natural, reliable, increased, explored, ability

Exercise 4. Form adjectives from the corresponding nouns. Use any 5 of them in the sentences of your own:

area, circumstance, condition, environment, fact, nature, phenomenon, principle, society, structure, substance, technology, theory, universe.

Exercise 5, Learn the following sets of related words. Define what part of speech each word belongs to. Give the meaning of the prefix or suffix in each case and group the words according to the suffix or prefix:

science — scientist — scientific, experiment - experimenter — experi­mental- experimentally, theory — theoretician — theoretical — theo­retically; comfort — comfortable — comfortably; communicate — com­munication — communicative, action — active — activity, instant — instantly, swift — swiftly, long — longevity — length; order — disorder — orderly, occupy — occupation; rely — reliable — unreliable.

Exercise 6. Fill the gaps with suitable word using one of the suffixes from the list below:

-al -able -ly -ist -er

1. This fact was later observed by many… experiment

2. His deductions are … rely

3. Students perform … analysis of chemical structure

substances in the laboratory.

4. She is an …of the local …movement. active, environment

5. Such phenomena can be described … theoretical

Exercise 7. Fill the gaps with a suitable verb or noun + preposition from the list below:

gave rise to; keep pace with; leads to; was looking for; to gain control over; distinguish from; is made up of

1. He always tries … a difficult situation.

2. Every natural cause … a certain result.

3. Imagine that this object … three different parts.

4. … the group, otherwise you’ll get lost.

5. His article … a thorough discussion in scientific circles.

6. Here are my calculations. I … them all the evening yesterday.

7. In organizing facts we must … cause … result.

Exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. Наука виникла із спроб людини зрозуміти себе та оточуючий світ.

2. В основі науки лежить переконання, що всі природні явища мають природні причини.

3. Спостерігаючи природні явища, вчені систематизують їх.

4. На основі систематизованих фактів науковці формулюють принципи та теорії.

5. Кожне нове відкриття розширює наші знання про навколишнє середовище.

6. Наука – це найбільш прогресивна форма людської думки, в якій завжди є простір для нових пошуків та відкриттів.

Structure Study.

Exercise 9. Paraphrase the following, using the Possessive Case where possible:

activity of man, aim of science, set of condition, wealth of nature, curi­osity of a person, discovery of a scientist, occupation of an open-minded person, search of an experimenter, ability of a student, control of the environment.

Exercise 10. Learn the following Greek and Latin plurals, used in scientific English. Use them in the sentences of your own:

stimulus — stimuli, nucleus — nuclei, radius — radii, formula — formula;, medium — media, symposium — symposia, curriculum — curricula, bacterium — bacteria, datum — data, index — indices, ap­pendix — appendices, basis — bases, analysis — analyses, diagnosis — diagnoses, hypothesis — hypotheses, thesis — theses, criterion — crite­ria, phenomenon — phenomena.

Exercise 11. Insert articles where necessary. Explain your choice:

…. science is .... branch of people activity for developing … theoretic knowledge about … reality. It is ... part of... spiritual culture of … society. ... Ukrainian science is well-known in… world. There are over …370 higher schools of … different types in Ukraine. There are also many research institutes which make … lot of scientific discoveries in … different fields of … science: … biology, … mathematics, ... medicine, ... space etc…. most important scientific centre of our country is … Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, which coordinates … scientific activities in Ukraine, publishes different scien­tific periodicals and so on

Exercise 12.Choose the correct form. Explain your choice.

1. She gave us some good advice/advices.

2. He doesn’t have any experience/experiences.

3. What time is/are the news on television?

4. There is a lot of information/informations on this subject.

5. He has not made any progress/progresses in his English.

6. I need some paper/papers to write these letters.

7. Are you reading the book or just looking through the content/contents?

8. My favourite subject at school was/were physics.

9. This is/are very rare species of bird.

10.We shall attend a six-month/ a six-months English course.

Exercise 13. Choose the correct form with or without the:

1. Life/the life would be very difficult without electricity/the electricity.

2. I like people / the people I work with.

3. Oxygen/ the oxygen is necessary for human organism.

4. Pass me salt/ the salt, please.

5. What time do you finish work/ the work?

6. This news was published in Times/ the Times.

7. He always visits National Opera/ the National Opera when he is in Kyiv/ the Kyiv.

8. University street/ the University street leads to the main building of our University.

9. My dream is to cross Atlantic ocean/ the Atlantic Ocean.

10.London/ the London is situated on both banks of Thames/ the Thames.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 14. Read and translate adjectives that can be used to qualify

problem basic, chief, main, major; fundamental, essential,

important, specific, highly-specific, peculiar;

difficult, challenging, complex, complicated;

attractive, exciting, interesting, fascinating.

Possible intensifiers: very, quite, rather, extremely, exceedingly, most

Exercise 15. Following the model compose sentences evaluating a certain problem.

Water pollution is obviously an extremely important problem.

A B C

A: environmental control; prolongation of human life; effects of modern dietary habits; human colour vision; the problem you are studying.

B: is; obviously is; is without doubt; seems; seems to be; has long been.

C: (use adjectives to the word problem from exercise 14).

Exercise 16. Name some problems that can be regarded as: 1) fundamental ones; 2) most challenging ones; 3) most attractive in your field and explain your choice.

Exercise 17. 1. Combining A, B, and C compose sentences on the history of a certain problem. 2.Write a passage on the history of the problem you are studying (going to study).

A	B		C
This problem The problem of… The problem of … as such The problem of.. as is outlined now The problem of… as is viewed now The problem under discussion	was (first)	advanced brought up formulated raised posed put forward	by at in as early as as far back as	Prof. K the beginning of.. 1925 the late 80’s the 1970’s the XXth century

Exercise 18. 1. Combining A, B, C complete the sentences characterizing the essence of a certain problem.. 2. Explain the essence of the problem you are studying.

A	B			C
It This problem The problem of…	is was has been can be	(briefly)	described outlined formulated stated	as follows:… as follows below:… as is given below:… in the following way:…

Exercise 19. 1.Combining A, B, C formulate the necessity for further research of a certain problem. 2. Formulate the necessity for further research of the problem you are studying.

A	B			C
The problem The problem of… Some aspects of the problem Such aspects of the problem as	is/are (still)	poor inadequately insufficiently not sufficiently	studied examined understood	and need(s) further investigation
	(still) remain(s)

Exercise 20. Translate into English:

1. Контролювання оточуючого середовища становить, безперечно, одну з найважливіших проблем сучасного суспільства.

2. Питання збереження тропічних лісів було вперше сформульовано ще у 70х роках 20 сторіччя.

3. Розглядувану проблему можна коротко сформулювати наступним чином: яке з джерел енергії є найбільш безпечним для людства?

4. Такі аспекти проблеми як використання нетрадиційних джерел енергії все ще недостатньо вивчені і потребують подальшого дослідження.

Discussion of the Text

1. Explain the purposes of science.

2. Speak about the relation between science and society.

3. Explain how every new discovery widens the horizon.

4. Speak about the characteristic features of a scientist.

Article for Reading and Discussion.

Assignment. Read the article and explain:

1) why it is important to know the origins of one’s own language;

2) the role of Latin and Greek in modern languages, especially terminology.

Don't shoot the pian-IST.

Much nonsense is talked in Britain about Greek and Latin. True, the foundations of Western culture were laid in those tongues (with some help from Hebrew), and, yes, the Iliad in Homer's Greek is one thing, translations are another. True, it is nice to understand the captions of the Bayeux tapestry or of the mosaics of Monreale. But let us keep a sense of proportion.

All that matters in Greek or Latin has been well translated (even improved, like the New Testament). The claim that study of these two languages trains the mind as no other can is bunkum. Johnson knows: for years of his youth he studied them. Nor was it distinguishing gerund from gerundive that taught him English grammar, nor Ovid who led him to Byron, let alone Donne. One claim is fair. An understanding of En­glish is deepened by knowledge of (any of) its parents: its resonances spring from its origins, not just from use. Yet here too let us pay such homage as is due, not more.

If English chooses to borrow, bend or savage the ancient languages for its own purposes, that is its privilege. Cicero did not use ad hoc as we do, nor the economist's jargon ex post. It is English, not Latin, that decides whether the plural of some word ending in- um is –a or –ums. Librarians use indexes, statisticians indices, straight from Latin — and both are right. Agenda is a singular noun, not plural, for all that in Latin it means "things to be done", media and data are going the same way (alas, but Johnson's protests, justified today, may be merely out of date in 50 years' time).

Nor is spelling to be dictated by the past. Pedants used to insist that words like mechanise and organise be spelt –ize, since they come from Greek roots and –izo is a common Greek way of forming verbs. True premise, false conclusion. Oxford’s lexicographers, pointing out that –izo is found in late Latin too, spell nearly all –ise words in –ize. In practice, British English today tends to use –ise, while Americans write –ize. Fair enough. The choice is theirs, not that of Athens or Rome.

More important, the charge itself, not just this imagined infraction, is — at best- questionable. English is alive with such Greco-Latin mon­grels as amoral, bio-diversity, hypermarket, inorganic, perinatal, tele­vision. Umpteen words combine a Latin root with the Greek ending -ist. True, many such formations are modern — though the 17th century stuck the Latin negative in- on the front of almost anything — and tradi­tionalists (a mongrel itself) dislike them. But they are here. Must we ban them just because some class-ic-ist (a mongrel remongrelised) objects?

From “The Economist”

UNIT 2

Text: The Scientific Attitude.

Grammar: Adjective. Verb. IndefiniteTenses (Active Voice). Scientific Writing: Information.

The Scientific Attitude

What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry, geology, engineering, medicine or any other science?

What are these special methods of thinking and acting? First of all, it seems that a successful scientist is full of curiosity — he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which he notices have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for underlying relationships even if the data available seem to be unconnected. Moreover, he thinks he can im­prove the existing conditions, whether of pure or applied knowledge, and enjoys trying to solve the problems involved.

He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective and applies persistent and logical thought to the observations he makes. He utilizes the facts he observes to the fullest extent. For example, trained observ­ers obtain a very large amount of information about a star (e.g. distance mass, velocity, size, etc.) mainly from the accurate analysis of the simple lines that appear in a spectrum.

He is skeptical — he does not accept statements which are not based on the almost complete evidence available — and therefore rejects au­thority as the sole basis of truth. Scientists always check statements and make experiments carefully and objectively to verify them.

Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows that man is the least reliable of scientific instruments and that a number of factors tend to disturb impartial and objective investigation.

Lastly, he is highly imaginative since he often has to look for relationships in data which are not only complex but also frequently incom­plete. Furthermore, he needs imagination if he wants to make hypoth­eses of how process works and how events take place.

These seem to be some of the ways in which a successful scientist or technologist thinks and acts.

Notes to the Text

1. to be full of curiosity - to be full of desire to learn or know;

2. pure and applied knowledge — theoretical and practical body of facts accumulated by mankind;

3. to solve the problem — to find the answer (to), to explain a question proposed for solution; 4. to apply persistent and logical thought — to use practically constantly repeated and correct reasoning of an idea (concept)­;

5. man is the least reliable of scientific instruments— a human being is in the smallest degree true (trustworthy) scientific means;

6. to disturb impartial and objective investigation - to break up a fair and real (without bias and prejudice) careful research.

Active Vocabulary

1. scientific attitude — науковий підхід

2. to find out — дізнаватися, з'ясовувати

3. satisfactory — задовільний, достатній.

4. relationship — споріднення, відношення, зв'язок

5. data(sing.— datum) — дані, iнформація

6. available — доступний, дійсний

7. persistent - наполегливий, стійкий, постійний 8. to utilize — використовувати, утилізувати

9. extent— 1) простір, 2) ступінь, міра

10. evidence - 1) очевидність,2) доказ

11. truth — правда, істина, відповідність, точність

12. authority— І) влада, повноваження, 2) значення, вплив

13. to verify — перевіряти, підтверджувати (джерело, доказ)

14. hypothesis — гіпотеза, передбачення

15. to make hypothesis — висунути, будувати гіпотезу

Comprehension

1. How does the scientific attitude arise?

2. What attracts a successful scientist's attention?

3. Name the spheres where the scientific attitude is applied?

4. What features must a real scientist possess?

5. How do you understand the statement “… man is the least reliable of scientific instruments”?

6. What part does a hypothesis play in a scientific discovery?

­7. Explain in English “to disturb impartial and objective investigation”.

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases; compose the sentences of your own.

теоретичні та прикладні науки; вирішувати проблему; розв'язувати задачу; науковий підхід; тісний зв'язок; велика кількість; перевіряти факти; безпристрасні та об'єктивні спостереження; шукати; сподіватись; точний аналіз; доступні дані.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the words from the right column:

1. It seems that a successful scientist… 1.to the fullest extent

2. He utilizes the facts… 2.is full of curiosity

3. A scientist… towards the problems which 3.whether of pure or

he notices… applied knowledge

4. In order to verify statements he … 4. checks them

5. He thinks he can improve existing conditions 5. have no satisfactory

explanation

6. Furthermore, he needs imagination if he … 6. directs his attention

7. Furthermore, he is not only critical to the 7. but also of his own.

work of others… 8. wants to make a

hypothesis

Exercise 3. Name corresponding specialists of the following fields of science:

Biology, physics, chemistry, geology, engineering, medicine, linguistics, literature, history, mathematics, geography, pedagogy, law, sociology, journalism, archaeology, economics.

Exercise 4. Using a dictionary find opposites to the following words:

natural, successful, curious, satisfactory, available, good, accurate, logi­cal, complete, reliable, least, partial, frequent, connected, lastly

Exercise 5. Match nouns in the right column with adjectives in the left. Make as many word combinations as possible, translate them.

method satisfactory

explanation scientific

data available

knowledge complex

investigation complete

Exercise 6. Write out the features that a scientist must possess and explain how he applies them in his research.

e.g. A scientist is full of curiosity because he wants to find out how and why the universe works.

Exercise 7. Read and translate the word combinations given below. Fill the gaps with a suitable word combination in the correct form:

to be based on; to find out; to direct to/towards; to depend on/upon; to concentrate on/upon; to be critical of; to belong to; to rely on/upon

1. Jack always keeps his promise. You can ___ him.

2. This film ___ a famous novel.

3. She is my cousin. She ___ my family.

4. Everybody can make errors. Don’t ___ his ideas.

5. While experimenting we must ___ the details.

6. This problem was already explained. You better ___ your attention ___ another problem.

7. Don’t stop halfway in your investigation. You must ___ the truth.

8. This hypothesis ___ largely ___ previous research in this field.

Exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. Науковий підхід – це особливий підхід науковця до спостереження суспільних чи природних явищ. 2. Науковець зосереджує свою увагу на проблемах, які ще не мають задовільного пояснення. 3. Вченому притаманний ряд особливих рис, які необхідні для проведення досліджень. 4. Дослідник повинен розвивати в собі такі риси як точність, об’єктивність, спостережливість, логічність.

Structure Study

Exercise 9. Practice the following according to the model:

Model: My uncle usually reads many newspapers. My uncle read many newspapers yesterday. My uncle will read all the newspapers. My uncle said that he would read all the newspapers.

1. Professor Smith always makes his reports on Tuesday. 2. His assistant always helps him in his work. 3. They attend lectures every day. 4. The teacher explains new material very often. 5. She seldom watches TV in the daytime.6. He usually solves his problems by himself. 7. This prob­lem attracts scientists' attention.

Exercise10. Make up questions to which the italicized words are the answers:

1 He thinks he can improve the existing conditions. 2. She uses some special methods to achieve good results. 3. Yes, he makes experiments successfully. 4. They said that these methods of thinking would prevail. 5 Scientists wilt check statements 6. They utilized the facts they had observed to the fullest extent. 7. He always directs his attention to his investigation.

Exercise 11. Open the brackets, use the verb in the correct form:

1. If I (need) any help, I (ask) you.2. I (send) you a postcard when I (be) in London again.3. We (let) you know as soon as we (make) our decision.4. If he (not come) soon we (not wait).5. Everyone (be) very surprised if he (pass) this examination.

Exercise 12. Give the comparative and the superlative degree of the following adjectives:

full, good, accurate, patient, large, simple, little, high, thin, impartial, far, bad, pure, reliable

Exercise 13. Fill the gaps with adjective or adverb in the correct form:

1.The … you are, the… results you get. concentrated, good

2. To my regret you result is… in the group. bad

3 .Their… investigation is… than the previous one. late, reliable

4. He is … scientist in his field, he’s got a Nobel Prize. successful

5. Ann works… than most of her friends. hard

6. She is… student in the group. persistent

7. You are late. I expected you to be here… . early

8. Health and happiness are… than money. important

9. The … you practice your English, the… you’ll learn. much, fast

10. He is … person I have ever met. intelligent

Exercise14 .Translate into English:

І. Як ви вважаєте, що відіграє більш важливу роль у нашому житті — наука чи мистецтво?

2. Перш за все вчений зосереджує свою увагу на деяких проблемах, потім перевіряє факти, які він спостерігає.

3.Він приніс все обладнання для свого експерименту вчора.

4. Минулого року мешканці нашого міста спостерігали ду­же цікаве явище в атмосфері.

5. Через тиждень ми отримаємо найточніші дані.

6. Він склав іспит з філософії краще ніж з англійської, але гірше ніж з спеціальності.

7 Вона сказала, що принесе мені підручник з граматики англійської мови завтра.

8. Цей матеріал значно складніший ніж той, який ми вивчали минулого тижня.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 15. Read and translate adjectives that can be used to qualify

earlier, previous, preliminary, past, present, current, further;

information sufficient, complete, extensive; detailed, exact, precise;

good, reliable, valuable;

insufficient, incomplete, fragmentary; poor, uneven, unreliable.

Exercise 16. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences stating a) availability or b) lack of information. 2. Write a sentence concerning availability/lack of information on your subject.

A			B	C
There Is	some /little enough/lack of a lot of /not any sufficient/no precise detailed reliable valuable	information	in literature	about on concerning regarding bearing on	the use of… the application of… the changes in… the action of…
			at present
			nowadays

Exercise 17. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences indicating the sources of information. 2. Write a sentence concerning the sources of information on your subject and the way it has been provided.

A	B		C
The information Some of our information Much of the information Most of the recent information	comes has come is obtained has been obtained	from	experiments on… recent studies of… studies involving…analysis recent investigations in the field of… using the newly-developed method…
	is provided has been provided	by

Exercise 18. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences stating the possible conclusions that the information available allows or does not allow. 2. Write a sentence concerning the possible conclusions you can make as to the information obtained in the course of your research.

Our information	is is not	sufficient insufficient	to indicate to suggest	that this action is slow. that this change is dramatic increased amounts of an interrelation between… a participation of …
This new information	seems does not seem
Information provided by	has been has not been		to permit to suggest to allow	any such assumption any of these conclusions such conclusions the following assumption

Exercise 19.Write an account of the available information on your problem, mentioning also the information that is still needed.

Exercise 20. Translate into English:

1. В наш час є багато інформації про природу цієї взаємодії. 2. Інформація, отримана з останніх досліджень в цій галузі, здається недостатньою, щоб дійти цього висновку. 3. В літературі відсутня будь-яка інформація про це явище. 4. Щоб зрозуміти цей процес, нам потрібна точна інформація, отримана із застосуванням нового методу.

Discussion of the Text

1. Speak on the topic “The scientific attitude”.

2. Make a summary of the text.

Article for Reading and Discussion.

Assignment. Read the extract below and dwell on the specific features of scientific writing. Should the author have recognized that the purposes and methods of scientific writing are different from those of a general nature?

Did you ever read a scientific paper that begins, “For no good reason at all I had a hunch that…” or “I was just fooling around one day when…”? No sir! Seldom does a trace of anything haphazard, anything human, appear in published reports of research experiments. The scientific paper will more likely begin:” In view of recent evidence concerning the Glockenspeil theory, it seemed advisable to conduct…” And the report will go on to describe a carefully thought-out experiment that followed not only a logical but also a chronological order. This was done, this resulted, therefore these conclusions were suggested.

Scientific tradition demands that scientific papers follow that formal progression: method first, results second, conclusions third. The rules permit no hint that, as often happens, the method was really made up as the scientist went along, or that accidental results determined the method, or that the scientist reached certain conclusions before the results were all in, or that he started out with certain conclusions, or that he started doing a different experiment.

Much scientific writing not only misrepresents the workings of science but also does a disservice to scientists themselves. By writing reports that make scientific investigations sound as unvarying and predictable as a pavan, scientists tend to promulgate the curious notion that science is infallible. We hear time and again of the superiority of the “scientific method”. In fact, the word “unscientific” has almost become a synonym for “untrue”. Yet the final evaluation of any set of data is an individual, subjective judgment; and all human judgment is liable to error. Thoughtful scientists realize all this; but you wouldn’t gather so from reading most scientific literature. A pompous, stilted style too often seizes the pen of the experimenter the moment he starts putting words on paper.

Words direct our lives, after all. And if the words in which we read the scientist’s own unfolding story of his science are all cold and calculated, empty of foible or failing, above even mention of mistake, how are we to divine that in the vast majority of moments when he is not writing, the scientist is a genial, sensible, rather humble man? By what occult power are we to recognize that his “objective evaluations” in the scientific journals are actually not magnificent infallibilities but fortunate conclusions of persistently pursued hunches, exhaustibly explored intuition, and unexpected observations?

Editors of scientific publications are not without their reasons for the current style of scientific writing. Their journals aren’t rich. Paper and printing are expensive. Therefore it is expedient to condense articles as much as possible. Under pressure of tradition, the condensation process removes the human elements first. And few scientific writers rebel against the tradition. Even courageous men do not go out of their way to publicize their deviation from accepted procedures. Then, too, there is an apparent objectivity and humility attached to the third person, passive voice writing technique adopted in the preparation of most scientific papers. So, bit by bit, the true face of science becomes hidden behind what seems to the outsider to be a smug all-knowing mask. Is it any wonder that in the popular literature the scientist often appears as a hybrid superman-spoiled child?

“Why Don’t Scientists Admit They’re Human?” by W.Furness

Thompson. From “Mind speaks to mind”.

UNIT 3

Text: The Scientific Method.

Grammar: Participle and its Functions. Passive Voice.

Scientific Writing: Experiment.

The Scientific Method

As man's knowledge of natural phenomena increased, there came a time when he recognized that his growing knowledge of nature was the result of his application of a particular method of investigation It seemed clear that a special sequence of procedures was applied to establish the working principles of science. The emphasis passed from the knowl­edge itself to the method by which that knowledge was obtained. This rather well defined procedure was come to be known as the Scientific Method. The steps in the procedure may be listed as follows:

First — the recognition of the problem. Second — collection of relevant facts or data. Third — analysis of data and proposing a solution (i.e a hypothesis). Fourth — performance of test experiments. Fifth - acceptance, modification or abandonment of the hypothesis in the light of the results of the test experiments.

If the hypothesis is discarded as the result of the test experiments, a new one will be set up and steps three, four and five will be repeated until an explanation is found which accounts satisfactorily for all the known experimental facts. As the amount of substantiating data be­comes larger and larger, the hypothesis advances to the rank of a theory and eventually may be accepted as true.

I t should be noted that in general one adopts first the most obvious hypothesis, that is, the one that at the moment seems to offer the sim­plest explanation of the observed facts. This hypothesis may or may not prove to be satisfactory in the light of later evidence.

In coming to a conclusion about any hypothesis, the true scientists are swayed only by experimental evidence. They are not, for instance, governed principally by what they or anyone else want the result to be, by the reputation of the man who advanced the hypothesis, by what the majority of people think about it, оr by any similar emotional reaction to the problem. They will constantly check their conclusions and hypoth­eses by experiment and be guided solely by the results thus obtained.

Notes to the Text

1. sequence of procedures- the regular order of doing things;

2. the emphasis passed from…to – something became more important;

3. to account satisfactorily (for) – to be a good explanation (of);

4. amount of substantiating data – a number of facts that support the hypothesis;

5. hypothesis advances to the rank of a theory- hypothesis gradually changes into a theory.

Active Vocabulary

1. to apply- застосувати- application

2. to investigate — досліджувати — investigation

3. procedure — процедура , перелік дій

4. sequence— ряд, низка, послідовнісгь, перелік

5. to obtain — одержувати

6. to define— визначати-—definition

7. step — етап, крок

8. to recognize -— визнавати — recognition

9. to solve — розв'язувати задачу -solution

10. to perform — виконувати — performance

11. to accept — приймати — acceptance

12. to modify — змінювати — modification

13. to abandon — відмовлятись, відхиляти — abandonment

14. to discard — відкидати, відхиляти

15. amount—величина, обсяг, кількість

16. eventually — в кінці кінців, нарешті

17. to adopt — приймати — adoption

18. obvious — очевидний

19. to satisfy — задовольняти - satisfactory, satisfactorily

20. to prove – доводити, доказувати—proof

21. to conclude- робити висновок –conclusion

22. to sway – впливати( на когось), схиляти (когось до чогось)

23. to guide – керувати – guidance

Comprehension

1. What did people recognize when their knowledge of natural phenomena increased?

2. How is a particular method of investigation organized?

3. How does a scientist get a satisfactory explanation of relevant data?

4. In what case does a hypothesis turn into a theory?

5. What is called “the most obvious hypothesis”?

6. How is a hypothesis proved?

7. What guides a scientist in his investigation?

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:

знання про природні явища; прийшов час; застосування особливого методу дослідження; послідовність дій; основна увага перемістилась з... на; наступним чином; визначення проблеми; відповідні данні; виконання контрольних експериментів; відхилення гіпотези; данні, що підтверджують; прийти до висновку; в світлі останніх даних; перевірити гіпотезу експериментально; керуватись результатами

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the text:

1. Man’s growing knowledge of nature was the result of… 2. The scientific method is the method by which… 3. The recognition of the problem is the first… 4. If the hypothesis is discarded as the result of…a new one… 5. The hypothesis advances to the rank of a theory when… 6. The most obvious hypothesis is the one that offers… 7. In proving the hypothesis a true scientist is guided solely by…

Exercise 3. Find in the text synonyms to the following words and phrases:

to grow in size; research; to receive; to abandon; to change; to govern; to formulate a hypothesis, the same; proof; to check something experimen­tally.

Exercise 4.- ion is a noun-forming suffix. Write out form the Active Vocabulary all pairs of related words (e.g. to apply – application). Following the model compose sentences with any 3 pairs.

Model: You have to apply this concept in your research.-The application of this concept is necessary.

Exercise 5. Here is a list of verbs associated with some nouns that form word-combinations ap­pearing in the Unit. Use them in the sentences of your own:

1. to obtain- evidence, knowledge, information, results;

2. to check, to test, to analyze, to prove – hypothesis, conclusions, results, data;

3. to discard, to abandon, to modify – hypothesis.

Exercise 6. Fill the gaps with a suitable word from the list below:

abandon, are governed, applications, sequence, substantiate, was recognized

1. Experiment implies a special ___ of procedures aimed to obtain certain information. 2. What data ___ your conclusions? 3. We ___ solely by the results of the test experiments. 4. Why did you ___ your previous hypothesis? 5. His discovery ___ as the most outstanding in this field. 6. Name some possible practical ___ of your research.

Exercise 7. Translate into English:

1. Як ви застосовуєте результати свого дослідження? 2. В ході експерименту вчений одержав цікаві дані. З. Це наукове відкриття визнане у всьому світі. 4. Одержані дані задовольняють теорії. 5. Які висновки були зроблені відносно модифікації приладу? 6. В кінці кінців на основі очевидних доказів гіпотезу було відхилено. 7. Запропонована вами процедура визначена добре. 8 Професор керує дослідженнями багатьох аспірантів. 9. Прийнята процедура включає декілька етапів. 10. Відмовтесь від цієї гіпотези, вона незадовільна.

Structure Study.

Exercise 8. The general rule holds that “someone is –ed if something is –ing. Or, if something is –ing, it makes you –ed”. Following the model complete 2 sentences for each situation, using either form of the participle in brackets .

Model: 1. Tom is interested in politics. 2. Tom finds politics interesting.

1. The film was not as good as we had expected (disappoint-).

a) The film was___. b) We were ___ with the film.

2. It has been raining all day. I hate this weather (depress-).

a) This weather is ___. b) This weather makes me ___.

3. Astronomy is one of Tom’s main interests (interest-).

a) Tom is ___ in astronomy. b) Tom finds astronomy ___.

4. Ann is going to America next month. She has never been there before (excit-).

a) Ann is really ___ about going to America. b) It will be an ___ experience for her.

5. Diana teaches young children. It is a hard job (exhaust-).

a) Diana often finds her job ___. b) At the end of the day Diana is often ___.

Exercise 9. Choose the correct form of the participle:

1. We were all horrifying/ horrified by the storm. 2. Are you interesting/ interested in psychology? 3. I enjoyed the game. It was quite exciting/ excited. 4. It was a really terrifying/ terrified experience. Afterwards everybody was very shocking/ shocked. 5. Do you easily get embarrassing/ embarrassed?

Exercise 10. Translate the following phrases, use them in the sentences of your own:

various methods used by scientists; investigated problem; unexplored area; increased knowledge; applied procedure; items listed in the chart; proposed solution; accepted theory; experiments finished by Tuesday; modified hypothesis; explained natural events; data substantiated by ex­perimental facts.

Exercise 11. Define the function of Participle 2 in the following sentences and translate them:

1. When I came nearer I saw an excited crowd at the door of his house. 2. Another problem raised in this novel is the position of woman in society. 3. Acknowledged by public Mark Twain became one of the leading journalists of America.4.We know Byron as the author of many lyrical poems devoted to nature and love. 5. The Centigrade scale is the official scale of temperature used in Ukraine. 6. When released, the body will vibrate.

Exercise 12. Replace the infinitives in brackets by Participle 2. Trans­late the following sentences into Ukrainian:

1 The conference (to hold) in November attracted much attention in the press.2. The problems (to discuss) at the conference gave rise to further investigation. 3. The data (to process) by computer proved to be valu­able. 4. Will your hypothesis explain all phenomena (to observe) in na­ture? 5. Can you explain the steps (to apply) in the procedure? 6. The experimenter used the (to modify) equipment in his test. 7. The hypoth­esis (to offer) does not account for all facts.

Exercise 13. Define what part of speech the words with -ed belong to and state their function in the following sentences:

One day they landed on a beautiful island covered with trees. 2. He attended the meetings organized by the Scientific Society. 3. A short, well-dressed gentleman arrived at the hotel and occupied the best room. 4. Dissatisfied with the results of his experiment, the scientist wanted to give up his research. 5. Pressed by financial difficulties they stopped the serial experiments.

Exercise 14. Transform the following sentences into Passive:

1. We considered this matter at the conference. 2. They published an interesting article in this journal. 3. The scientists discussed many urgent problems concerning environmental protection. 4. The researchers made no mistakes in the test experiment. 5. The guest-speakers answered all questions. 6. They speak English at the conference and even during the breaks. 7. The State Commission will examine the post –graduates in June. 8. I shall finish my thesis in three years. 9. We shall sign an agreement on scientific cooperation tomorrow.

Exercise I5. Give 2 Passive transforms of the following sentences as in the model:

Model: They offered him an interesting job — 1. He was offered an interesting job. 2. An interesting job was offered to him.

1. He gave me little time to arrange the experiment. 2. They will provide you with all necessary information. 3. The professor showed us an inter­esting phenomenon. 4. They will give him every assistance in his work. 5. The guide shows some exhibits to a group of people. 6. They told us the news yesterday.

Exercise 16. Translate into English:

1. Він проводить експеримент, про який багато пишуть. 2. Які дані були використані в цій роботі? 3. Особлива увага приділяється перевірці гіпотези. 4. Рішення було запропоноване одним із вчених. 5. Цей матеріал буде використано в лекціях. 6. Доповідача завжди слухають дуже уважно. 7. Вчорашня стаття в газеті була написана відомим вченим-екологом. 8. Де була отримана ця інформація? 9. Дані спостереження використовуються при написанні дисертації. 10. Ким застосовується цей прилад? 11. У цій лабораторії проводять багато досліджень.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 17. Read and translate adjectives that can be used to qualify

initial, pioneer, early, previous, recent, current, present,further precise, thorough, specific, highly-specific, technical, highly-

experiment technical; encouraging, promising, reliable, successful;

discouraging, unreliable, unsuccessful.

Exercise 18. Translate into Ukrainian.

1. Those were very highly-specific experiments, carefully planned and most beautifully performed.

2. Initial experiments performed asearly as the 1950’s proved very promising.

3. It is quite clear that further experiments of the kind would be highly desirable.

4. The previous experiments in this area were obviously unsuccessful.

5. The experiments as suggested by the authors, although thoroughly prepared, proved unreliable.

6. The experiments this group of workers have carried out were most ingenious and have proved very promising, although the experimental material they used was rather limited. It is quite clear that experiments to that effect should be further extended to include other species.

7. More recent experiments by these workers proved to be highly-specific, although the technique was basically the same as the one used in earlier experiments.

Exercise 19. 1.Combining A,B and C complete the sentences stating the purpose of the experiments.

2. State the purpose of the experiments you are planning to carry out.

A	B		C
We The authors	made carried out performed undertook attempted started initiated	these experiments	to show to evaluate to test to check to provide to obtain to measure to determine to establish to reveal	a correlation between… certain phenomena in… the hypothesis that… some understanding of… some information/ data on… the parameters/ amounts of… certain parameters of… the rate of… the compone components of…
		this series of experiments
		this set of experiments
		a number of experiments

e.g. The authors performed this series of experiments to check the validity of the existing hypothesis.

Exercise 20. Combining A, B and C compose sentences stating the object of the experiment as well as its aim.

A			B		C
Experiments	on	protein synthesis	are have been are being	made carried out performed underway	to determine… to check… to test… to answer the question.
		nuclear differentiation

Exercise 21. 1.Combining A,B and C complete the sentences stating results/ conclusions from the experiments performed

A B C
Experiments by M. et al.	show(ed) have shown (have) demonstrated (have) indicated (have) suggested				a variety of changes in… a correlation between… no correlation between… that the changes are due to… that these phenomena are … that the effect is durable
Recent experiments in this area
	support(ed) confirm(ed)		our assumption our hypothesis
The experiments reported here	provide(d)		some new information further data		concerning the influence of/on… about the mechanism of…
	fail(ed)	to demonstrate to show			any correlation between… any changes in…
The present series of experiments
	lead (have) led enable(s)	us the		to conclude to suggest to believe	that there are changes due to… that the effect is short-lived
Our experiment(s)
		authors

e.g. Recent experiments in this area supported our assumption that these phenomena are interrelated.

Exercise 22. Translate into English.

1. Професор Н. З колегами розпочали серію експериментів з метою продемонструвати кореляцію між цими явищами.

2. Ми провели декілька експериментів, сподіваючись отримати нові дані про природу цього ефекту.

3. Автори провели низку експериментів, щоб встановити параметри цієї взаємодії.

4. Описувані експерименти підтверджують наше припущення стосовно швидкості даного процесу.

5. Останні експерименти в цій галузі привели авторів до висновку, що їх гіпотеза справджується лише за певних умов.

Exercise 23. Write an account of the experiments you have performed (plan to perform), stating what they have demonstrated or what you expect them to demonstrate

Discussion of the Text

1. Describe the steps in the scientific method.

2. Explain the essence of the scientific approach to the solution of the problem.

3. Explain the following phrase:” In coming to a conclusion about any hypothesis the true scientist is governed only by experimental evidence”.

Article for Reading and Discussion

Assignment. Read the article and explain 1) the steps of the procedure Mr. Chen applied in his investigation and 2) the attitude of Mr.Chen’s colleagues towards the conclusions he made.

ALL TOOLED UP

After a hard day tilling the soil, prehistoric man no doubt liked to unwind. Feet warmed by a pair of bison-fur slippers, sabre-toothed golden retriever at his side, he would settle down by the fire for an evening polishing his ornamental flint arrowheads. Not such an implausible pic­ture, according to Chen Shan, an anthropologist at Toronto University — at least the bit about the arrowheads.

Early agricultural societies produced huge numbers of flint arrow­heads. Anthropologists have usually assumed that these barbs were the tips of weapons used in hunting, even though the farmers no longer relied on hunting, as their nomadic ancestors had, as a main source of food. But Mr. Chen disagrees. Once nomadic hunters had settled down to primitive agriculture, he claims, the flint-points became not weapons but all-purpose household tools. They were “the Swiss army knives of their day," says Gary Crawford, head of Mr. Chen's department. Even more controversially, Mr. Chen claims that some arrowheads were sim­ply made out of reverence for traditional skills — and for fun.

To test his idea, Mr. Chen used prehistoric flint-flaking techniques to produce brand new arrowheads with which he then did various dom estic tasks, including cutting and scraping grass, wood and animal skins. Then he studied the tools under high magnification for chips, scratches and smooth patches. Next he asked a colleague to make and use more tools for the same kinds of tasks, and to show him the used arrowheads. Four out of five times, Mr. Chen correctly guessed what they had been used for. Finally he examined arrowheads left behind by agricultural societies living from 600 to 900 AD in what is now south-west Ontario. He found clear signs that many had been used not for fighting or hunting but for domestic tasks.

More strangely, a large number of arrowheads had not been used at all. They had carefully sharpened points_: but there was no sign of wear. There are so many of them that Mr. Chen reckons they were made to commemorate ancestors, by continuing to use me skills that had enabled those ancestors to survive. Or perhaps, he says, they were simply for decoration.

Plenty of anthropologists find Mr. Chen’s conclusions concerning the beating of arrowheads into kitchen utensils persuasive, but question the rest of his theory. They prefer the more prosaic notion that the un­used tools were merely reserves that were never needed. Some even suggest that Mr. Chen's Chinese background may have led him to over-stress the possibility of ancestor worship. But others agree with Mr. Chen: after all, plaster ducks had not yet been invented.

From “The Economist”.

UNIT 4

Text: Pure and Applied Science Grammar: Continuous Tenses

Scientific Writing: Method (Technique Procedure)

Pure and Applied Science

As students of science you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms "pure" and '"applied" science. Are these two totally different ac­tivities, having little or no interconnection, as is often implied? Let us begin by examining what is done by each.

Pure science is primarily concerned with the development of theo­ries (or, as they are frequently called, models) establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe. When they are sufficiently validated these theories (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science. In carrying out this work, the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs, confining his attention to explanations of how and why events occur. Hence, in physics, the equa­tions describing the behaviour of fundamental particles, or in biology, the establishment of the life cycle of a particular species of insect living in a Polar environment are said to be examples of pure science (basic research), having no apparent connection (for the moment) with tech­nology, i.e applied science.

Applied science, on the other hand, is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to the practical affairs of life, and to increasing man’s control over his environment, thus leading to the development of new techniques, processes and machines. Such activities as investigating the strength and uses of materials, extending the findings of pure mathematics to improve the sampling procedures used in agriculture or the social sciences, and developing the potentiali­ties of atomic energy are all examples of the work of the applied scien­tist or technologist.

It is evident that many branches of applied science are practical extensions of purely theoretical or experimental work Thus the study of radioactivity began as a piece of pure research, but its results are now applied in a great number of different ways — in cancer treatment in medicine, the development of fertilizers in agriculture, the study of metal-fatigue in engineering, in methods of estimating the ages of objects in anthropology and geology, etc. Conversely, work in applied science and technology frequently acts as a direct stimulus to the development of pure science. Such an interaction occurs, for example, when the tech­nologist, in applying a particular concept of pure science to a practical problem, reveals a gap or limitation in the theoretical model, thus point­ing the way for further basic research. Often a further interaction oc­curs, since the pure scientist is unable to undertake this further re­search until another technologist provides him with more highly-devel­oped instruments.

It seems, then, that these two branches of science are mutually de­pendent and interacting, and that the so-called division between the pure scientist and the applied scientist is more apparent than real.

Notes to the text

1. to be primarily concerned with — to be originally or principally involved or interested in.,.

2. to be sufficiently validated - to make legally valid as much as it needed

3. to have (no) apparent connection — to have (no) evident(visible) relation

4. to improve the sampling procedures - to make better the procedures of selecting samples, specimen

5. to be evident — to be clear, easy to see

6. to apply a particular concept — to use practically a specific(unusual) idea, notion

7. to reveal a gap or limitation (in) ... — to show a blank space or restriction (in)...

8. pure scientist - a scientist who deals with pure (theoretical or abstract) science, knowledge

9. to be able (unable) to undertake — to be able (unable) to take upon oneself a task.

Active Vocabulary

1. to be puzzled by — бути спантеличеним, намагатися вирішити проблему

2. pure and applied science — теоретична та прикладна наука

3. primarily— 1) в першу чергу, 2) головним чином

4. to carry out — виконувати

5. to disregard — не звертати уваги, ігнорувати

6. to confine — обмежувати, дотримуватися

7. tо occur — траплятися; syn —to happen

8. potentiality — можливість, потенційність

9. conversely — навпаки

10. cancer treatment — лікування раку (хвороби)

11.metal-fatigue - втомленість металів

12.so-called- так званий

13. apparent — очевидний

14. to extend — простягатися

Comprehension

1. What is often implied by the terms “pure" and "applied" sci­ence?

2. What is the aim (object) of pure scientific investigation?

3. Name some examples of basic research.

4. How are the basic working laws of science established?

5. What is the work of an applied scientist concerned with?

6. Name some examples of applied science.

7 . Name some applications of radioactivity. Name some examples of the interaction of pure and applied science.

8. Give two other words meaning the same thing as” hypothesis”.

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents o f the following words and phrases and compose sentences of your own:

теоретична й прикладна наука; головним чином; виконувати; траплятися; потенційність; бути зацікавленим; так званий; очевидний.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the text:

1. Pure science is primarily concerned with... 2. In carrying out this work… 3. Applied science, on the other hand… . 4. It is evident that... 5. Such an interaction occurs, for example… 6. Often a further interaction oc­curs… 7. Such activities as investigating … .

Exercise 3. See if you can recall the prepositions:

Students … science; to be puzzled …; to be concerned …; …the other hand; a great number …; in carrying … this work.

Exercise 4. Сomplete the following sentences, choosing one of the four expressions in the brackets; translate the sentences:

1.The results of research into radioactivity are applied in (electronic computers; sampling procedures; cancer treatment; pure science). 2. Many branches of applied research developed out of (the work of tech­nologists; pieces of basic research; equations describing the behaviour of fundamental particles; new processes). 3. Pure science relates to (more highly-developed instruments; sampling procedures; solving practical problems; developing theories which explain the relationships between phenomena). 4. New kinds (types) of instruments are frequently essen­tial for (basic research; improving fertilizers in agriculture; describing the life cycles of insects; finding the cube root of fraction). 5. Investigating the strength and uses of materials is an example of (the principles of pure science; technology; the interaction of basic and ap­plied research; a theoretical model).

Exercise 5. Form nouns of the following verbs;

to study; to behave; to connect; to research; to work, to improve, to explain, to increase.

Exercise 6. Use either verb in the correct form or a corresponding noun from ex.5 to fill the gaps in the following sentences:

1. This experiment has apparent c…_with your r… .

2. Were you s… the b… of this species during last summer field practice?

3. Under these conditions the temperature i…_is rather slow.

4. What are you w…_at?

5. Your e…_of the data obtained is rather incomplete.

6. After several tests he proposed a valuable i…_to the experimental procedure.

Exercise 7. Based on the meaning of prefixes translate the following sets of words:

inter- between, from one to another: intra- within;

1) interrelation, interlink, intermediate, interconnect, interact, interfirm trade;

2) intra-atomic, intra-molecular, intra-tropical, intra-firm trade.

Exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. Ці результати повністю відрізняються від результатів, отриманих в попередніх дослідженнях.

2. Наші плани в першу чергу стосуються впровадження нових методик.

3. Він зосередив свою увагу на вдосконаленні процедури вибірки.

4. В своїй статті автор вказав на можливі напрямки подальшого теоретичного дослідження.

5. Побутові прилади є прикладом практичного застосування певних теоретичних концепцій.

Structure Study

Exercise 9. Find Present, Past or Perfect Participles in the text and define their functions.

Exercise 10. Define the functions in which Participle is used in the following sentences:

1. … till smiling spring again appears. 2. The sleeping children didn't hear their parents came home. 3 We admired the stars twinkling in the sky. 4. Is the door locked? 5. A page is missing from the book. 6. In spite of himself, Val was impressed. 7. Coming to the stadium they found the game in full swing. 8. Not knowing what to say he kept silent.

Exercise 11. Translate the second part of the following sentences using the proper form of Continuous tense:

I. There was a knock at the door в той час, як викладач пояснював це правило. 2. When you came in я готувався до лабораторної роботи. 3. We always consult a dictionary коли перекладаємо з англійської. 4. Never interrupt other people коли вони розмовляють. 5. Він працюватиме all day long. 6. Ми будемо обговорювати це питання at З р.m. tomorrow.

Exercise 12. Transform the following sentences into passive, leaving out the doer of the action:

1. He was making a report at 7 p m yesterday. 2. We were discussing a new experimental procedure at our last meeting. 3.I was translating the article when the telephone rang. 4. She is typing your letter at the mo­ment. 5. The professor is examining our group now. 6. You will be analyzing these texts at the lesson tomorrow. 7. He will be answering your questions during the interview. 8. They are conducting a very important experiment at the moment.

Exercise 13. Replace the infinitives in brackets by Indefinite or Con­tinuous tenses where necessary:

1. Stop smoking! The room (to be) full of smoke which (to come) from your pipe. Usually nobody (to smoke) in here as Mother can't stand it. 2. The woman who (to speak) with my sister in the yard (to be) our neighbour who (to live) across the street. 3. "You (to hear) the speaker well?" — "Yes, I (to hear) him clearly. I (to listen) very attentively, but still (not to understand) what he (to drive) at?" 4. Don't enter the study. Father (to work) there and he (not to like) to be disturbed. 5. My hat (to flow) off when I (to cross) the bridge. 6. The rain (to begin) to fall while we (to watch) the game. 7. He (to lose) his pocket-book while he (to see) the sights of London. 8. Mary (to wear) her new dress when I (to meet) her yesterday. 9. I (to read) the newspaper when I (to hear) a strange noise. 10. He often (to go) to the British Museum when he (to study) at London University.

Exercise 14. Translate into English:

1. О чверть на сьому вони займалися англійською мовою. Вони завжди вчать англійську в цей час.

2. Він дивився телевізор, коли задзвонив телефон. Майкл завжди дивиться телевізор увечері.

3. З ким ти вчора розмовляв, коли я зустрів тебе на вулиці? — 3 другом. Він приїхав із Києва два дні тому.

4. Він писатиме листа, коли ти до нього прийдеш.

5. Під час тренувань з другої до четвертої години ми будемо грати в теніс. Вчитель сказав, що під час тренувань ми будемо грати в теніс.

6. Вона сказала, що вона пошукає його адресу, доки ти чекатимеш.

7. Напередодні свята Різдва Христова діти прикрашають ялинки. Коли я запитав сусідніх малюків, що вони робитимуть напередодні Різдва, вони відповіли, що прикрашатимуть ялинку й будуть чекати на подарунки від Діда Мороза.

Scientific Writing

Exercise15. Read and translate adjectives used to evaluate

method current, modern, up-to-date, improved, modified, new;

(technique old, out-of-date, outdated; conventional, routine;

procedure) (in)accurate, (in)adequate, (in)appropriate, (un)suitable, precise, effective; (in)efficient, (un)practicable, (un)satisfactory, good/ poor, useful/ useless, (un)reliable, (in)valid, time-consuming.

Exercise 16. 1.Combining A,B and C complete the sentences, characterizing a certain method(technique, procedure).

2. Compose sentences, describing methods used in your research.

A	B	C
The method we use(d) The technique we apply(ed) The procedure they follow(ed)	is known is referred to	as	quantitative analysis X-ray diffraction ion-exchange chromatography

A	B			C
This method The above technique This procedure	is seems	(most) (very)	accurate adequate suitable appropriate	for in	the study of… the evaluation of… field conditions laboratory conditions
	is regarded as

Exercise 17. Name some methods, techniques or experimental procedures in your field of research that are:

1) commonly used nowadays; 2) routine and conventional ones;

3) old though still in use having been modified or improved;

4) old and no longer used as outdated and unsuitable.

Exercise 18. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences, describing the essence of a certain method (technique, procedure). 2. Compose sentences, describing the method(s) used in you research.

A		B	С
The met The method The procedure The technique	we follow(ed) in our experiments	can be (briefly) described	as follows:
		is as follows: is like this:

Exercise 19. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences

1) stating advantages of a certain method and

2) its possibilities:

A	B	C
One (essential) advantage of the method One (essential) advantage that the method has One of the assets of this technique Another obvious advantage Another good feature of the technique	is	its simplicity/reliability, etc. its (relative) ease with which…
		that it is very simple that it allows the determination of… that it allows the use of…

A	B		C
This method This technique The above procedure	allows enables	us	to demonstrate… to observe… to detect… to evaluate…
	makes	it possible

Exercise 20. Translate into English:

1. Автори описали дуже надійний метод підготовки експериментального матеріалу.

2. Метод, використаний авторами, здається найбільш ефективним для дослідження цього явища.

3. Ця сучасна точна методика дає можливість визначити параметри даного процесу.

4. Процедура, яку ми застосували, займає багато часу, проте є дуже надійною.

5. Дана методика є застарілою і вже більше не використовується.

Exercise 21. Describe the methods, the technique and the experimental procedure you have followed (plan to follow) in your research.

Discussion of the Text.

1. Describe “pure” science and “applied” science.

2. What can you say about dependence and interacting between these two branches of science.

3. Make a summary of the text.

Article for Reading and Discussion

Assignment. Read the article and explain the essence of the general method of studying a foreign language and the importance of studying grammar.

HOW TO LEARN A LANGUAGE

You can learn a foreign language. This is a true statement. It is true because you know your mother tongue. And if you have been able to learn it, you can learn any language- provided you really want to.

If you want to speak a language, you must hear it spoken. The luckiest students have a teacher who speaks fluently and well and never uses a word of his mother tongue in class. This makes it possible to learn a new language the natural way – as babies do- by imitating. When there is no teacher to do the speaking a tape recording can be a great help. If you are mainly interested in reading a language, you do not need to hear it spoken. Many people learn both dead languages and modern ones without the help of any teacher. Actually there is no magic formula to follow. But there are some general guides that you will find helpful if you want first to speak and then later to read a new language.

Listen. Begin to learn a language by ear. Listen to native speakers. Listen to tapes. Turn on your radio.

Imitate. Say out loud the sounds of your new language, particularly the sounds that are different from those you make when you speak your mother tongue. Imitate as closely as you can the exact intonations you hear native speakers use. Concentrate on the words that are more frequently used. Then try to learn whole phrases and sentences. Learn them as one piece – not as separate words put together.

Study. Each language has its own grammar rules. At first you may think that the rules of grammar of your native language are more sensible than any other language. But you will waste a lot of energy – and lose a lot of fun- if you try to reform any other grammar or make it fit the pattern of your mother tongue. Each language is organized according to its own grammar. Don’t fight the rules. Study them carefully and learn to use them.

Read. Practice reading foreign language newspapers and magazines. Read children’s books in the language you are learning. The more you read, the sooner you will get to feel the language.

Think. As you practice your new language force yourself from the very beginning to think in that language. Though translation can be done, of course, but you will learn faster if you skip your mother tongue words altogether. Native speakers all learned to think in their language – and you can, too. If you learn this way you will have much less trouble with grammar. Some people believe that learning a foreign language is just a matter of memorizing words. Words are like flowers. Each flower has its own kind of stalk and its own way of growing in the earth. A rose has to have a rose bush under it, not a pine-tree. In much the same way an English word only blossoms out with its full meaning when it grows out of a stalk of English grammar.

Repeat, repeat and repeat. Say words and phrases and sentences over and over again until they pop out automatically. You are learning a new skill and you have to keep practicing it lest you lose your skill. Also, the more you learn, the easier it is for you to learn still more. Your knowledge of a language is like a snowball rolling downhill.

Don’t skip. Learn systematically. Master each step as you come to it. Those who skip have poor results. You can learn a language at any age, so the best time is now.

From “Oral Practice for Science Students”.

UNIT 5

Text: Research Work

Grammar: Perfect Tenses

Scientific Writing: Study (Investigation, Research)

Research Work

Our University successfully integrates education with research. The final stages of the university program(me) include acquiring skills in re­search. The students carry out research mainly for their graduation pa­per which reflects the knowledge and the practical skills in their particu­lar field of science. Research is carried out under the guidance of a su­pervisor (scientific adviser).

The University has a broad program(me) of activities ranging from the very basic to the very practical and can perform various research. The University professional staff members number some thousand employees engaged in multiple research projects in different branches of science. Their achievements have been recognized and staff members, two thirds of whom have academic degrees, have been honoured by the presentation of titles, certificates and awards. Many of the scientists are known internationally for their contributions. Research teams, working at various scientific projects, collaborate with their colleagues abroad and maintain close links with many research institutes and universities world-wide.

A great number of postgraduate students undertake a program(me) of study and research under the supervision of senior staff members who hold candidate or doctorate degree. The postgraduate course lasts three years during which time the young scientists and researchers carry out their investigations and prepare thesis on it. Their work should be conducted on the high scientific and technical level an the results of it should be practically applicable.

The postgraduate course program(me) provides for attending semi­nars and colloquiums, taking qualifying exams in the core subjects, in philosophy and English, preparing research publications and written reports on the work carried out.

The postgraduate research may be theoretical and applied, often both. The scientific adviser assists his postgraduate students in many ways. He regularly meets them to discuss the progress in their work and to advise them in solving their current problems. While the thesis is be­ing written the supervisor reviews its major sections and makes critical comments on each draft. The postgraduates are assisted in preparing articles and papers on their research. When the postgraduate com­pletes his or her thesis, he/she submits it to the Academic Council of the University and further defends it before the Academic Council. If the thesis meets all necessary requirements it is accepted by the Academic Council which takes the decision to award the postgraduate the higher academic degree.

Notes to the text

1. to acquire skills in research — to gain practical knowledge and ability to conduct an investigation;

2. scientific adviser/supervisor - a person who holds an aca­demic degree and guides the students and postgraduates' re­search;

3. ranging from very basic to very practical — extending from fundamental theoretical to applied practical (research);

4. staff members — those working in an establishment, institu­tion or organization;

5. to carry out investigations - - to research something systematically in order to discover and interpret new knowledge;

6. to prepare a paper — to prepare a scientific contribution to be read to a learned society or to be published.

Active Vocabulary

1. to integrate — інтегрувати, поєднувати, сполучати

2. skill — навичок, вміння

3. graduation paper — дипломна робота

4. multiple — багаточисельний, різноманітний

5. to contribute - робити внесок; contribution – внесок

6. research team - дослідницька група, колектив

7. to collaborate - співпрацювати; collaboration ‑‑ співпраця

8. to provide for smth.—забезпечувати щось

9. core subjects - профільні (основні) предмети, дисципліни

10. to maintain - підтримувати, забезпечувати

11. to review - переглядати, робити огляд; review – огляд

12. to meet requirements – відповідати вимогам;

13. the Academic Council - Академічна (Наукова) Рада

14. to award - присуджувати нагороду; award –нагорода, відзнака

15. degree - ступінь (науковий)

Comprehension

1. What activities is the University engaged in?

2. What does the students’ scientific research reflect?

3. In what way are scientific achievements recognized?

4. How do scientists collaborate?

5. Who supervises scientific research?

6. How long does the postgraduate course last?

7. What does the programme of the postgraduate course include?

8. What assistance can a postgraduate student expect?

9. What is the final stage of the postgraduate’s course?

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases and use them in the sentences of your own:

Суміщати освіту з науковим дослідженням; практичні навички; під керівництвом; науковий ступінь; співпрацювати з колегами з закордону; проводити наукове дослідження; готувати кандидатську дисертацію; високий науковий та технічний рівень; складати іспити з профільних дисциплін; основні розділи дисертації; присуджувати науковий ступінь.

E xercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the text:

1. The students carry out research under… 2. The University staff mem­bers are engaged in ... 3. Many scientists have been honoured by… 4. Research teams collaborate with… 5. Postgraduate students undertake… 6. The postgraduate course lasts three years during ... 7. The post­graduate students attend..., take… , prepare… 8. The postgraduate re­search is often both… 9. The scientific adviser meets… , reviews..., makes... 10. At the final stage, when the research is complete, the post-graduate submits… and defends... II. If the thesis meets necessary requirements it is…

Exercise 3. Rewrite the following sentences using "either... or", "nei­ther... nor", "both ..and":

І. I am interested in physics and electronics. 2. He wants to do research in ecology or geography. He has not made up his mind yet. 3. He is no good at sport and he is no good at languages. In fact, he prefers archae­ology to everything. 4. The postgraduates attend lectures in core sub­jects and English. They will need these subjects for their future work. 5. This article does not review previous observations or published data. It gives quite a new approach to the problem.

Exercise 4. Read and translate the following pairs of words. Fill the gaps with either word from the pair in the correct form:

to award – award to graduate- graduate to number- number

to honour-honour to progress- progress to review- review

1. He r… the latest literature on this topic in his article published in December.

2. The population of this town n…_only 20 000.

3. He received the highest scientific a…_for his discovery - the Nobel Prize.

4. You have made a good p… in your studies.

5. Last year they h…_me with an invitation to spend a year at Oxford University.

6. The n…_of speakers was limited.

7. As g…_we have to carry out research and write a thesis based on its results.

8. My knowledge of English p…_little by little.

9. When did you g…_from the University?

10.He was a… _an h…_degree and decided to take a postgraduate course.

11.This magazine always contains Science R…_.

Exercise 5. Using the following phrases write about: I) the tasks of the postgraduate; 2) the tasks of the scientific advisor; 3) the require­ments for thesis.

Postgraduate: to undertake a programme of research; to carry out investigation; to prepare a thesis; to apply the results of investigation; to pass qualifying exams; to meet the supervisor; to write papers and re­ports; to submit the thesis before the Academic Council.

Supervisor: to help choosing a promising topic for research; to give advice on current problems, to meet regularly with the postgradu­ate; to review the major sections of the draft, to comment on the progress of research; to help in preparing articles and reports.

Thesis: to reflect the knowledge and the practical skills in the particular field of science; to be conducted on the high scientific and technical level; to be both theoretical and applied; to meet the necessary requirements.

Exercise 6. Using the text write minimum 15 sentences about your postgraduate programme.

Exercise 7.Translate into English:

1. У вищій школі студенти отримують навички проведення наукового дослідження.

2. Вчені нашої лабораторії співпрацюють над цим проектом з колегами з закордону.

3. Він обрав дуже перспективну та цікаву тему для наукового дослідження.

4. Керівник переглянув чернетку статті та зробив цінні критичні зауваження.

5. Чи матиме ваша робота практичне застосування?

Structure Study

Exercise 8. Change the verb in the following sentences into the proper perfect tense, add time modifiers if necessary, translate the sentences:

1. The students carry out research for their graduation paper. 2. Research is carried out under the guidance of a scientific adviser. 3. His invention is recognized by the certificate. 4. Our research team will work at this problem next year. 5. The results of their research were applied. 6. They perform various experiments to prove this hypothesis. 7. I meet my scientific adviser rather often. 8. Why do you choose this solution? 9. The thesis is written under his guidance. 10. The Academic Council took the decision to award her the higher academic degree. 11. They are discussing this problem now. 12. They were performing the experiment for two hours. 13. The postgraduates will be taking this exam next year.

Exercise 9. Translate the first part of the following sentences into English:

1.Вона працює в університеті since 1990. 2.Я досліджував цю проблему since I graduated from the University. 3. Вони отримали цікаві результати since they started this experiment. 4. Ми підтримуємо тісні зв’язки з цим вченим since our meeting at the conference last year.5. Наша дослідницька група підготувала декілька публікацій since that time. 6.Вони не одержують від нього листів for many years. 7.Він зайнятий в цьому проекті for several months already. 8. Керівник переглядав основні розділи дисертації for a fortnight.

Exercise 10. Join the fallowing pairs of sentences into one according to the given model:

Model: He learned English. We went abroad. — He had learned English before we went abroad.

1. The students carried out research. They wrote their graduation paper. 2. The postgraduates attended seminars in the core subjects. They passed their qualifying exams. 3. The scientific adviser made critical comments. The draft was written. 4. The postgraduate finished his in­vestigation. He wrote some articles on its results. 5. The Academic Council decided to award the postgraduate the higher Academic degree. He suc­cess defended the thesis.

Model: He began to perform this experiment 3 hours ago. He is still doing it.- He has been performing this experiment for 3 hours.

I. The teacher began to explain this rule 15 minutes ago. She is still explaining it. 2.I began to write my report an hour ago. I am still writing it. 3. She began to study English two years ago. Then she went to Spain. 4. They began to draw the graphs some hours ago. Then they decided to change some data.

Exercise11. Complete the following sentences translating the Ukrai­nian words into English:

I. I haven't translated all the sentences yet, але я їх перекладу before the bell rings. 2. By the end of the term ми здамо екзамени з профільних дисциплін. 3. Я напишу статтю by next week. 4. She hasn't finished her experi­ment yet але вона закінчить його by May. 5.I shall ring you up після того, як перегляну цей розділ дисертації. 6. І haven't met my scien­tific adviser yet, але обов'язково зустрінусь з ним by the end of the month. 7. Ми чекали декілька днів before he answered our letter. 8. Я переглядаю цей журнал for several hours already. 9. Вони чекають на вас for half an hour.

Exercise 12. Transform the following into the passive leaving out the doer of the action if necessary.

1. I shall have looked through your draft by tomorrow. 2. I suddenly remembered that I have left my book at home. 3. The students had learned much by the end of the term. 4. I had promised him the book (2 variants). 5. The speaker has just answered the questions. 6. They have learned a lot of new words and expressions. 7. We have offered him a very interesting work (2 variants). 8. They had discussed the plan with us before we accepted it. 9. The committee will have adopted the reso­lution by the next week. 10. I shall have given the results to you by 6 pm. (2 variants).

Exercise I3. Replace the infinitives in brackets by proper tense-forms (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect):

I. You (to know) English well if you (to work) hard. 2. They (to discuss) the results of the experiment for half an hour before I (to join) them. 3. She (to carry out) her research after she (to graduate) from the college. 4. The supervisor (to provide) leadership in planning and direction of research after the topic (to be chosen). 5. He (to say) he (to solve) this problem already. 6. They (to test) the hypothesis just now. 7. She (not to choose) the topic for investigation yet. 8. He (to tell) us he (tо take part) in the next conference.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 14. Read and translate adjectives used to evaluate

study initial, pioneer, previous, recent, current, present,

(investigation further; field, laboratory; experimental, theoretical;

research) multi-disciplinary; full-scale, extensive; technical;

careful, detailed, thorough;

profound, fundamental, encouraging, promising; useful,

fruitful.

Exercise 15. Translate into Ukrainian.

1. Recent studies of the effect of air pollution on plants have been very successful and brought about a lot of new material essential for further work in this area. 2. These were very detailed and very thorough studies which had certain implications for biology and medicine. 3. A study of the kind is highly important and highly desirable, too. 4. The above studies are of great significance. They may provide a possible clue to a more general dynamic mechanism. 5. Numerous investigations have been performed to elucidate the origin of mitochondria.

Exercise 16. Combining A, B and C compose sentences evaluating studies (investigation, research):

A	B	C
This detailed study That fundamental research Those pioneer investigations Multidisciplinary studies of such kind The research we have performed Profound investigations in this area	is are was were have/has been have proved	extremely promising and stimulating. very detailed and profound. highly-technical and detailed. extremely important and useful. rather intensive and full-scale. quite complete and fruitful.

Exercise 17. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences characterizing the purpose of a study (investigation, research). 2. Write about the purpose of your research.

The aim purpose object objective

of

the present study this investigation our research these studies

is was has been will be

to obtain some results which… to obtain some knowledge of… to assess the role of… to establish what factors are…

Exercise 18.1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences demonstrating the overall result of the studies performed. 2. Write a similar sentence concerning your research.

A	B	C
The studies we have performed The investigation performed by the authors We carried out several studies which The research we have done The investigation carried out by …	show(ed) demonstrate(d) indicate(d) reveal(ed) suggest(ed)	that the effect is… a similarity between… an increase in… no resistance to… no adaptation to…

Exercise 19. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences stating general conclusion from the studies performed. 2. Formulate a( possible) general conclusion from your research.

A		B		C
These comprehensive studies (All) further investigations (All) these studies Fundamental research	in this area	enable(s)	us them the author(s)	to conclude that... to suggest that... to believe that... to assume that...
		have/has enabled

Exercise 20. Translate into English.

1. Останні дослідження в цій галузі надали досить цінну інформацію стосовно даного процесу.

2. З цих детальних досліджень ми зробили попередній висновок, що жоден з цих факторів не є специфічним.

3. Це фундаментальне дослідження було проведене колективом нашої кафедри.

4. Польове дослідження цього явища дозволить отримати експериментальні дані в підтримку нашої гіпотези.

5. Багатогалузеві дослідження цієї проблеми дозволили автору підтвердити своє припущення.

Exercise 21. Give an account of the investigation you have performed, the nature of the problem, the purpose of the research, the overall result and conclusions.

Discussion of the Text

1. Speak about the postgraduate course programme.

2. Speak about the activities carried out at higher educational establishments.

3. Speak about your personal postgraduate programme.

Article for Reading and Discussion.

Assignment. Read the extract below and explain

1) the author’s statement:” Unpredictability is part of the essential nature of research”;

2) the role of preparedness of scientists’ mind in making experiments;

3) the way of comparing scientists and nonscientists regarding the process of creative thinking.

Science, in practice, depends far less on the experiments it prepares than on the preparedness of the minds of the men who watch the experiments. Sir Isaac Newton supposedly discovered gravity through the fall of an apple. Apples had been falling in many places for centuries and thousands of people had seen them fall. But Newton for years had been curious about the cause of the orbital motion of the moon and the planets. What kept them in place? Why didn’t they fall out of the sky? The fact that the apple fell down toward the earth and not up into the tree answered the question he had been asking himself about those larger fruits of the heavens, the moon and the planets.

How many men would have considered the possibility of an apple falling up into the tree? Newton did because he was not trying to predict anything. He was just wondering. His mind was ready for the unpredictable. Unpredictability is part of the essential nature of research. If you don’t have unpredictable things, you don’t have research. Scientists tend to forget this when writing their cut and dried reports for the technical journals, but history is filled with examples of it.

In 1925 William Mason, a mechanical engineer, hit upon the idea of heating wood until it exploded and then using the fibers to make good inexpensive paper. He was in a factory drying some of the fibers when a friend asked him to lunch. After turning off the steam valve that regulated the heat, Mason left the place. He had lunch followed by a few extra cups of coffee. When he returned to the factory he discovered to his horror that the valve he thought he had closed was defective – the heat had remained on all the time he was away. The wood fibers weren’t merely dry; they were baked! Mason’s first reaction was to throw the fibers away. Before he did so, however, he took a long close look at them. He found a smooth sheet not of paper but of a new very special kind of grainless wood.

Another man made a valuable discovery because he forgot to wash his hands. He knocked off work in a laboratory to eat a roast beef sandwich, took one bite and gagged. The sandwich was sweet! In reaching for a glass of water, he noticed his hands were dirty. He examined the staff he had been working with in the laboratory before lunch and thereby discovered saccharin. Serendipity is the high-sounding name for this kind of happy accident….

…Actually, the scientist thinks in much the same way that the rest of us do. The problems he encounters in his work are different from our problems, but his method of arriving at solutions is much the same as ours. The scientist is not necessarily smarter or more creative than the nonscientist. The psychological process of creativity – whether a man is creating a new vaccine, a novel, a painting, or a piece of sculpture—is much the same for

everybody.

Serendipity – a gift for discovery; a natural gift for making useful discoveries by accident. From “The Three Princes of Serendip”, a Persian story about three princes who had this ability. Serendip is supposedly a former name of Sri Lanka.

“Why Don’t the Scientists Admit They’re Human?” by W.Furness Thompson. From “Mind speaks to mind”.

UNIT 6

Text: "Directed" Research?

Grammar: Modal Verbs and Their Equivalents. Scientific Writing: Data (Results, Findings).

“ Directed” Research?

A recent phenomenon in present-day science and technology is the increasing trend towards ''directed" or ''programmed" research, і.e. research whose scope and objectives are predetermined by private or government organizations rather than researchers themselves. Any sci­entist working for such organizations and investigating in a given field therefore tends to do so in accordance with a plan or programme de­signed beforehand.

At the beginning of the century, however, the situation was quite different. At that time there were no industrial research organizations in the modern sense: the laboratory unit consisted of a few scientists at the most, assisted by one or two technicians, often working with inadequate equipment in unsuitable rooms. Nevertheless, the scientist was free to choose any subject for investigation he liked, since there was no prede­termined programme to which he had to conform.

As the century developed, the increasing magnitude and complex­ity of the problems to be solved and the growing interconnection of different disciplines made it impossible, in many cases, for the indi­vidual scientist to deal with a huge mass of new data, techniques and equipment that were required for carrying out research accurately and efficiently The increasing scale and scope of the experiments needed to treat new hypotheses and develop new techniques and industrial proc­esses led to the setting up of research groups or teams using highly com­plicated equipment in elaborately-designed laboratories. Owing to the large sums of money involved, it was then felt essential to direct those human and material resources into specific channels with clearly defined objectives. In this way it was considered that the quickest and most prac­tical results could be obtained. This, then, was programmed (programmatic research).

One of the effects of this organized and standardized investigation is to cause the scientist to become increasingly involved in applied research (development), especially in the branches of science which seem most likely to have industrial applications. Since private industry and even government departments tend to concentrate on immediate results and show comparatively little interest in long-range investigations, there is steady shift of scientists from the pure to the applied field, where there are more jobs available, frequently more highly-paid and with better technical facilities than jobs connected with pure research in a university.

Owing to the interdependence between pure and applied science it is easy to see that this system, if extended too far, carries considerable dangers for the future of science – and not only pure science, but applied science as well.

Notes to the text

1. directed research – guided and controlled investigation;

2. present-day science and technology – modern science and technology;

3. to do in accordance with – to perform smth. in agreement with;

4. to carry out research accurately and efficiently – to do one’s investigation correctly (exactly) and competently (adequately):

5. elaborately-designed laboratories – well-planed and improved laboratories;

6. clearly-defined objectives – distinctly determined and explained aims, goals, purposes;

7. to show little interest – not to be interested in;

8. long-range investigations – long-extended (termed) research.

Active Vocabulary

1. recent – нещодавній;

2. trend – напрямок, тенденція;

3. scale and scope – масштаб і розмах;

4. objective – ціль, мета;

5. to be predetermined by - бути визначеним заздалегідь, зумовленим;

6. inadequate equipment - обладнання, що не відповідає вимогам;

7. nevertheless – незважаючи на те,що;

8. to conform – узгоджуватись, погоджуватись, зважати;

9. to set up – засновувати, споруджувати;

10. to involve – стосуватись, торкатись;

11. likely – (adj.) - ймовірний; (adv.)- певно;

12. steady shift – поступова зміна, переміщення, перехід;

13. frequently -часто,звичайно.

Comprehension

1. What is programmed research?

2. What differences in working conditions are there between the present-day scientist and scientists working , say, a century ago?

3. Describe laboratory conditions of the past.

4. What are the origins of programmed research?

5. Why is it difficult nowadays for the individual scientist to make significant contributions to science?

6. Mention one of the effects of organized research on the attitudes of scientists towards pure research?

7. What is a common attitude of private industry and government departments towards scientific investigation?

8. What part does money play in the situation discussed in the text?

9. How is the situation likely to affect the future of science?

10.Give synonyms to the words “applied science”, “directed research”.

Word Study

E xercise 1. Give English equivalents for the following words and phrases and compose sentences of your own:

сучасна наука і техніка; масштаб; тенденція; розроблена заздалегідь програма; обладнання, що не відповідає вимогам; точно і ефективно; ретельно сплановані (спроектовані) лабораторії; чітко визначені цілі.

Exercise 2. Give the opposites of

suitable; likely; frequent; limited; essential; able, efficient.

Exercise 3. Consulting notes to the text and the model paraphrase the following sentences:

Model: They showed us elaborately-designed laboratories. – They showed us well-planned and improved laboratories.

1. He must carry out this research according to the predetermined plan. 2.Present-day situation reveals a steady shift of scientists from the pure to the applied field. 3. Our team has developed a long-range programme of investigation. 4.This set of experiments was performed accurately and efficiently. 5.His report contained clearly-defined objectives for further research.

Exercise 4. In the following sentences use a verb with 'en' as a prefix or suffix to replace the italicized expression:

I They increase the length of the pipe. 2. We made the road wider. 3. The engineers increase the strength of the bridge. 4. That government department plans to make its laboratories larger. 5. The tube was made shorter. 6. The high temperature had the effect of making the metal softer. 7. The softening of the metal had the effect of making the whole structure weaker.

Exercise5 . Replace the italicized phrases by an -ing form:

1. The pressure that exists at the bottom of the ocean is greater on the surface. 2. Experiments which proved the effects of air pressure were conducted by Torricelli and Pascal. 3. Numbers that consist of digits are called integers. 4. Statistics is a discipline which affects all the other sciences. 5. The technologist is concerned with the development of new processes and techniques.

Exercise 6. Translate into English:

1. У сучасній науці існує зростаюча тенденція до „керованого” або „програмованого” дослідження. 2. Програмовані дослідження проводяться у відповідності до плану на замовлення приватних або урядових організацій. 3. Такі наукові роботи спрямовані на отримання нагального та найбільш ефективного результату. 4. Програмовані дослідження потребують великих людських та матеріальних ресурсів. 5. Для вирішення складних завдань створюються дослідницькі групи із залученням спеціалістів різних галузей.

Structure Study

Exercise 7. Read the following dialogue. Pay special attention to the use of modal verbs:

Young nephew: Can I smoke in your sitting-room, Aunt?

Strict old aunt: You can, Charles, but you may not.

Exercise 8. Fill in the spaces with can/could, must or may/might (or the negative forms):

I. Students bring textbooks into the examination room. 2.__ you stand on your head? – I ___ when I was at school, but I ___ now. 3. ___ I smoke here? – No, you ___. Smoking is not allowed. 4. ___ you type? – Yes, I type, but I don’t do shorthand. 5. ___ I come in? – Please, do. 6. I don’t remember the address. - ___ you even remember the street? 7. He ___ answer the teacher’s question yesterday, but today he ___ answer them. 8. ___ I come and see you this evening? – Of course, you ___. 9. When I first went to Spain I read Spanish but I ___ speak it. 10. There was a lot of noise in the street last night and I ___ sleep.

Exercise 9. Substitute the modal verbs by their equivalents:

1. We must discuss this article. 2. She must translate the text herself. 3. He must be there at 3 o’clock . 4. According to the plan we must pass this exam in two years. 5. Can you hear this strange noise? 6. I cannot help you as I am very busy at the moment.7. You may take this book, it was left for you. 8. I was sure you could translate this article after you had translated so many texts on mathematics. 9. I could not solve the problem before he explained it to me. 10. The doctor says I may get up for a few hours every day. 11. He must work systematically if he wants to know the subject well.

Exercise 10. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following proverbs and sayings:

1.You may break the body, but you cannot break the spirit. 2. A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer. 3. He that wants to eat the fruit must climb the tree. 4. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. 5. He who is afraid of wounds must not come near the battle. 6. One false move may loose the game.

Exercise 11. Mind the difference in meaning between modal verbs expressing supposition: must- певно, напевно; may – можливо; might – можливо (але малоймовірно); can’t-не може бути. Make up all possible sentences:

He	must	be at work now.
She	may	be busy next week.
You	might	know the answer.
They	can’t	be working at the moment.
		be still looking through the newspapers.
		have left already.
		have finished the research.
		have been experimenting all day.
		have been calculating the results for so long.

Exercise 12. Read the situations and write a sentence for each one using the words in brackets and the correct form of the infinitive:

Model: The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I must /be asleep). –I must have been asleep.

1. I rewrote all the article but it was not necessary. (I needn’t/ rewrite/ all the article). 2. To my regret I missed the discussion of the new project. (I ought/ be present/ at the discussion of the new project). 3. You made a lot of mistakes in your calculations. (You should / be more attentive). 4. I haven’t seen her for ages. (She must/ move /to another place). 5. John seems to know a lot about history. (John must/ read / a lot of books on history). 6. Nobody knew why Ann missed the presentation.(Ann might / be ill). 7. Tom didn’t attend the conference, though he was invited. (Tom might not/ receive/ the invitation in time). 8. Kate didn’t come to the meeting. (Kate may not/ know/ about the meeting). 9. He rejected to take up a new job though he needed money badly. (He should not/ reject / to take up a new job). 10. He recovered quicker than he expected. (He needn’t/ cancel/ his visit).

Exercise 13. Paraphrase the following sentences using the modal verbs (can, may, might or must) + Infinitive in the proper form:

1. Perhaps she is taking her English examination now. 2. It is possible that he has read the book in two days. 3. Perhaps he has been waiting for us for an hour. 4. I refuse to believe that the conference was canceled. 5. I refuse to believe that she wrote the report in time. 6. No doubt she felt that something was wrong. 7. He is probably reading something funny. 8. Of course, they study all these texts. 9. Evidently she was hurt by his words. 10. He is sure to have forgotten about the meeting.11. I am sure they have been working since morning. 12. I doubt that he came in time.

Exercise 14. Translate into English:

1. Ви граєте на роялі? — На жаль, не вмію, але мені дуже хотілося б навчитись. 2. Тепер я вмію кататися на ковзанах набагато краще. ніж минулого року. 3. Через рік ми вже будемо вміти добре працювати з цим складним обладнанням. 4. Можна взяти ваш словник? — На жаль, ні. Він мені зараз потрібний. 5. Мені залишатись? — Ні, не треба. Але ти можеш лишитись, щоб попрактикуватись на комп”ютері. 6. Вам доведеться почекати. Професор зайнятий. 7. Нам довелося іти пішки, оскільки було вже пізно і міський транспорт не працював. 8. Нам не довелось чекати. Потяг прийшов вчасно. 9. Він зможе вільно розмовляти англійською, якщо поїде до Лондона на стажування.10. Всі студенти повинні складати іспити вчасно. 11. Ти можеш виконати всі завдання, передбачені програмою? 12. Наша організація повинна заздалегідь фінансувати перспективні дослідження. ІЗ. Заплановані дослідження можуть вплинути на подальший розвиток цього перспективного напрямку.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 15. Read and translate adjectives used to qualify

data preliminary, previous, recent, new, further; old, out-of-date;

basic, main; (in)essential, (un)important; precise; (in)sufficient;

(results, clear-cut, (in)explicit, straightforward,(in)conclusive,

findings) (in)compatible, (in)consistent, (un)reliable, (in)valid;

encouraging/ discouraging; amazing, remarkable, fascinating.

Exercise 16. Translate into Ukrainian:

1. The data obtained from those experiments are of great practical interest as well as of certain theoretical value. 2. The data reported by Prof. N are quite remarkable. Moreover, they are clear-cut and explicit. 3. They have obtained certain results and presented a few findings which seem fairly convincing. 4. Although the data reviewed are only preliminary results obtained from a limited number of experiments, they are fairly convincing and, therefore, reliable. 5. To our knowledge, no comparable results are available in literature. 6. The data reported in literature are somewhat confusing, I dare say, they are rather controversial. 7. We have recently obtained some data which are totally different from those reported by other workers. 8. The authors have recently reported some data which, in our opinion, are particularly encouraging.

Exercise 17. Combining A,B and C complete the sentences characterizing the data (results, findings) obtained or presented (reported, reviewed).

The data available in literature The data reported by Dr .M The results presented in the paper The data obtained from recent studies of… The results we (have) obtained from The results they (have) reported here The findings they (have) reported here Our experimental findings These preliminary results These data (results, findings)	are seem	rather very quite	convincing interesting important promising reliable remarkable fascinating clear-cut straightforward consistent explicit
What we have reported here	is/seems

Exercise 18. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences showing comparisons of results or data, also their agreement with assumptions, theoretical predictions, other data. 2. Write similar sentences characterizing the data (results) you have obtained in your research.

A		B			C
Our results	are	very	similar to		those obtained by… those reported earlier by… those presented by… those published in… those available in…
These findings	appear to be	almost much exactly	the same as
The data obtained from...
We have obtained some results which
		a little slightly somewhat totally quite	different from
Dr.K (has) reported (some) data which
Some of these data
I would like to present some results which These and other findings The results we report here	are	coincident comparable in good agreement in line in keeping		with	those reported by… the theory of… the theoretical prediction… the current concepts about… the views expressed by… the findings by… most other data about… the assumption that… numerous other data on…
	show	(good) agreement
	fully	agree coincide
	fit in

Exercise 19. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences, showing the interpretation of certain data or conclusions from certain data.

2. Write similar sentences concerning the possible interpretation of results you have obtained in your research

A	B		C
The above findings All these data Some of these results	have been can be could be	interpreted	as follows…
		viewed	in terms of the current theory
		approached	from a different angle
From the above data From the results obtained On the basis of these results	we	conclude	that…
	it	can be concluded
	one	can conclude

Exercise 20. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences showing the way the results could be presented or summarized.

A		B				C
These data Our results The basic results		are have been may be		summarized shown presented		as follows… in figure 1 in tables №№…
This table Figure 3	presents summarizes shows		the data the results		obtained provided collected		from recent observations of… in the experiments with by the authors by the experiments from several sets of experiments on…

Exercise 21. Write a detailed account of the results you have obtained from your recent investigation.

Exercise 22. Translate into English:

1. Отримані результати добре узгоджуються з даними, що наводяться в літературі. 2. Останні дані стосовно цього явища не підтверджують концепцію, запропоновану проф.. К. 3. Деякі з цих результатів можна розглянути з іншої точки зору. 4. З наведених даних можна зробити висновок, що ці процеси взаємопов’язані. 5. Основні результати наших досліджень викладені в таблиці 3.

Discussion of the Text

1. Give examples of programmed research in any field.

2. Describe any cases you know of an individual scientist’s contribution to the advance of science.

3. Explain the reasons that force scientists to engage in programmed research.

4. Give an example of directed research conducted at your department / university.

Article for Reading and Discussion

Assignment. Read the article below and explain the type of research described, its essence and the practical applications of the devices, developed on the basis of this research.

NASO FINO

Smells have gone digital, joining words, numbers, pictures and sounds as data to be stored on computers and shunted around the world by e-mail or on disk. Electronic noses, arrays of chemical sensors linked to a neural network, are making possible the capture of these most elusive and evocative sensations.

The design of the electronic nose draws heavily on its human counterpart. This sophisticated organ has around 10,000 sensors, each of which can absorb a range of volatile chemicals. The smell of cheese will stimulate one group of them, that of onions another. Information from each sensor passes to the olfactory bulb in the front of the brain, which merges it to produce a

pattern of the molecules that have been absorbed. This pattern is checked against smell memories in the brain, which says in effect, “Yes, I’ve smelt that before, it’s cabbage”.

In the electronic version, smell molecules are caught in the surface of various electrically conducting organic polymers. This alters their electrical resistance, by an amount which depends on the chemical composition of the smell and the physical and chemical structure of the polymer. The change in the electrical characteristics of the array of polymers represents a unique signature or “smellprint”, which is then compared via a neural network to a memory bank of smells held on a personal computer.

The best electronic noses come from Britain – largely thanks to the work of George Dodd, a chemist who has been hooked on smells for more than 30 years. While director of the Institute of olfactory Research at the University of Warwick, he collaborated with Neotronics, a manufacturer of scientific instruments, and Bass, a brewer, to develop their Neotronics Olfactory Sensing Equipment. Last year the company launched NOSE commercially. Aromascan, a company founded by Krishna Persaud, one of Dr Dodd’s former students, is selling a similar electronic nose. Both it and NOSE have attracted a great deal of attention from companies with whiffs to sniff.

Food, drink and perfume companies are keen to use electronic noses to increase the objectivity and consistency of their quality control. At present, quality control involves techniques such as gas chromatography and panels of expert human sniffers. Electronic noses look promising in comparison. They are cheap – about $3 a time, compared with $15-25 for chromatography – and less erratic than human. And they don’t catch cold.

The electronic nose is also becoming a potent tool for doctors. At Britain’s South Manchester University Hospital an Aromascan nose monitors the healing of leg ulcers by sniffing for infection with beta haemolytic streptococci.

Because electronic noses can pick up the presence of a few volatile molecules, they can detect fires well before existing smoke or heat sensors. The European Space Agency puts them in its spacecraft as fire detectors. General Motors meanwhile is using Aromascan noses to build a more sensitive air-conditioning system for its cars, and Ford is using them to test exhaust emissions. Doctors, grocers, lawyers – everyone is happy with the new electronic nose. Perhaps only poets will rue the day the perfume of a rose became just another string of bits.

From “The Ecomonist”

UNIT 7

Text: Scientific Communication

Grammar: Sequence of Tenses. Direct and Reported Speech.

Scientific Writing: Evidence.

Scientific Communication

Communication is essential for scientific research. Science is a public knowledge and the aim of a scientist is to create, criticize and thus con­tribute to the progress of ideas. This aim is generally achieved through scientific publications and conferences.

Articles in regular scientific journals carry from one research worker to another various discoveries, deductions, speculations and observa­tions which are of common interest. Generally scientific papers are de­rivative and depend on previous research. References to other research are reflected in citations. A scientist relies on the citations to show the place of his investigation in the whole scientific structure.

Another opportunity to share and exchange opinions and informa­tion is national and international conferences and symposia. They play an important role in coordinating scientific research. Usually scientific gatherings are sponsored by the central scientific organizations. An or­ganizational committee is set up which decides where and when a con­ference should be held. Invitations are sent out to organizations inter­ested in the topics discussed, together with the requests to submit appli­cations and abstracts of papers . After receiving all necessary materials the committee publishes a program(me) of the events.

At the conference the participants present their papers and listen to the reports read by others on the latest develop­ments and the state of the art in their field. Papers on general topics are read before all the participants, those dealing with specific problems are presented at group meetings and plenary sessions held in subject areas under the chairmanship of distinguished scientists. After the hearings the discussions follow. Scientists can discuss a given problem with other experts in their field, argue with their scientific opponents, find out the details of some experimental procedures. The materials of conferences and symposia are usually published to allow others to keep abreast of the achievements in science.

Another type of scientific meeting are a laboratory or work-group seminar, colloquium or workshop. The members of the staff and guest-speakers make reviews of the developments in their field and report the progress of their research. The speakers expect thorough discussion and criticism, advice and help of their colleagues. Such personal exchange of views is very essential for any scientist.

Notes to the text

1. conference — meeting for discussion, exchange of views;

2. symposium — a conference at which a particular topic is discussed by speakers;

3. event — an item in a program(me) of a scientific gathering; a program(me) includes such events as plenary sessions, section meetings, seminars, workshops, round-table talks, etc ; a so­cial program(me) includes such events as dinners, receptions, excursions, tours, etc.;

4. the state of the art — the level or position at a given time, especially at present, of generally accepted and available knowledge, technical achievement in a particular field;

5. seminar — a discussion group on any particular subject;

6.colloquium — a meeting for discussion;

7. workshop — a seminar emphasizing exchange of ideas and practical methods;

8. criticism —judgment or opinion on something, remark that finds fault;

9. to keep abreast of (with) — to keep up to date

Active Vocabulary

1.communication - 1) спілкування, передача інформації, новин, повідомлень; 2) зв’язок, комунікація;

2. derivative — похідний, вторинний;

3. reference — посилання (на когось або щось), згадка (про щось);

4. speculate — v: І) міркувати (над чимось), обмірковувати,2) грати на біржі; n. speculation, — роздуми, міркування;

5. cite — v. І) посилатися (на щось); 2) цитувати; 3)згадувати; n. citation- цитата; adj citable- —цитований;

6. share — v. 1) ділити, поділяти, 2) брати участь (у чомусь)нарівні з іншими; n. \) доля, частка, 2) участь, роль;

7. hold (a conference, a meeting) —проводити(конференцію, зустріч);

8. request — v. 1) прохати дозволу; 2) робити запит, n. 1)прохання, (ввічлива) вимога; 2) запит, заявка;

9. abstract — v.1) реферувати, робити резюме; 2)абстрагуватись; n. 1) резюме, конспект, реферат, короткий огляд; 2) абстракція;

10.chair — n.1) кафедра, 2) професура; v. 1) вибирати головою; 2) головувати (на зборах, засіданнях, тощо), chairman, chairmanship голова / посада; under the chairmanship — під головуванням;

11.argue — сперечатися; n. argument — аргумент, доказ у суперечці.

Comprehension

1. Why is communication so essential for scientific progress?

2. How is written communication achieved?

3. What are the features of scientific articles?

4. What are the kinds of oral scientific communication'?

5. How are scientific gatherings organized?

6. What does a conference program(me) include?

7. What is the aim of scientific gatherings?

8. Why are scientific gatherings so important for the development of science?

Word Study

E xercise 1. Give English equivalents for the following words and phrases:

наукове спілкування; висновки; роздуми; попередні дослідження; посилання на інші дослідження; поділяти думку; обмінюватись інформацією; засновувати організаційний комітет; розсилати запрошення; подавати заяви, резюме доповіді; стан справ у галузі; головна тема; окрема проблема; під головуванням; дискутувати з науковим опонентом; запрошений доповідач; звітувати про хід наукової роботи; очікувати критику.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using information from the text:

1. Scientific communications contributed to... 2. Scientists exchange ideas through...3. "Derivative" knowledge means… 4. References show… 5. An organizational committee decides... , sends out... , requests... 6. Distinguished scientists chair ..., dealing with… 7. The published mate­rials of conferences allow others… 8. During the discussions that fol­low the speakers expect...

Exercise 3. Give synonyms to the following words:

gathering, paper, citation, speculation, to request, to subsidize, under the guidance, to discuss, to keep up to date, various, necessary, usually, to allow, review, colleagues.

Exercise 4. Give opposites to the following words:

common, progress, derivative, previous, interested, to receive, general, distinguished, to allow, criticism, personal.

Exercise 5. Recall the prepositions:

reports … the latest developments; contacts … colleagues; colleagues… other research centres; an expert ... some field… research; the state... the art; to argue ... the opponent; progress… research work.

Exercise 6. Translate into English:

1. Вчені спілкуються через наукові видання та на наукових зібраннях. 2.. У статті вміщені деякі роздуми та спостереження, що мають загальне значення. 3. Мета конференції — надати молодим вченим можливість поділитися своїми здобутками в галузі екології. 4. Стан справ в цій галузі був глибоко проаналізований нашою групою на пленарному засіданні. 5. Учасники подали резюме своїх доповідей, які були пізніше опубліковані в матеріалах конференції. 6. Мій колега— знавець / спеціаліст в цій галузі. 7. В повідомленнях запрошені доповідачі зробили огляд останніх досягнень та стану справ. 8.Критичні зауваження допомагають науковцям краще зрозуміти досліджувану проблему.

Structure Study

Exercise 7. Report the following statements applying the rules of Se­quence of tenses. First, start your sentence with the words "He said that", then with the words "He told me that":

1. Our research team is studying a very complex problem. 2. We have been conducting this experiment since last month. 3. They left for the conference yesterday. 4. She reported her results at the seminar. 5. I had no time to look through this journal. 6. We shall start a new set of experi­ments in two days. 7. The article will be published next month. 8. I shall be working at my report all day long. 9. Jane will have returned from the symposium by next Monday. 10. I’ll come when I have finished my work.

Exercise 8. Open the brackets using the infinitives in the proper tense-form:

1. Yesterday we (to receive) a telegram that he (to leave) for the conference in London. 2. Last time I (to see) him he (to work) at this article. 3. He (to tell) me he (to participate) in two international conferences last

year. 4. At the yesterday's plenary session the guest-speaker (to make) a report in which he (to review) the latest developments in this field. 5. Two years ago I (to meet) a colleague who (to investigate) the similar problem. Since that time we (to maintain) close contacts and (to exchange) our results.

Exercise 9. Rewrite the following sentences in Reported Speech, re­placing the word "said" by one of the words given below. Use each word only once: agreed, insisted, exclaimed, whispered, apologized, admitted, claimed, suggested, protested, boasted, shouted.

1. “I can speak four languages easily,” he said. 2. “Let's go to the party tonight”, he said. 3. “If you cannot do it for me today, you simply must do it tomorrow”, she said. 4. “Well, yes, if you insist, we shall stay here for a couple of days”, he said. 5. “Well, yes, you are right after all”, he said. 6. “This teacher has given me the wrong mark. I know his subject very well”, the student said. 7. “Sh-sh-sh . Stop talking, you are being impolite to the lecturer”, she said. 8. “I haven't broken the traffic rules. You cannot take my license I know my rights”, the driver said. 9. “Stop that noise in here!” he said. 10. “I'm sorry. I'm late for class”, he said. 11. “It is a surprise to meet you here today”, she said.

Exercise 10. In Reported Speech use the verbs to tell, to order, to command, to urge, to forbid for commands; to ask, to request for requests; to offer, to propose, to suggest for offers. Write the following in the reported speech using corresponding verbs for commands, requests and offers.

1.Will you give me your telephone number? 2. Could you ring me tomorrow? 3. Can you help me to translate the letter? 4. Will you sit down? 5. Can you take the message, please? 6. Would you like a cup of coffee? 7.May I have your name? 8. Hold the line, please. 9. Can I help you? 10. Could you pass a

message? 11. Will you ring me again and give the details? 12. Just sign these letters for me, will you?

Exercise 11. Make these questions indirect using the reporting words and phrases “ask”, ”wonder”, “want to know”, “request”:

1. “How long have you been working at this problem?” my friend asked me. 2. “Where will the conference be held?” my colleague asked. 3. “When do you expect to get the final results?” the head of the lab asked. 4. “What social events are included in the conference program(me)?” the participants asked. 5. “Who is the chairman of this working group?” the young scientist asked. 6. “What is the deadline of submitting the ab­stracts?” I asked my supervisor. 7. “Are you going to take part in the seminar?” the professor asked his postgraduate students. 8. “Have you already finished your experiment?” Boris asked Nick. 9. “Have you got any questions?” the speaker asked the audience. 10. “Had you published any articles before you submitted your thesis?” a postgraduate asked his fellow-student.

Exercise 12. Translate into English:

1. Він поцікавився, коли його стаття буде опублікована. 2. Ми були впевнені, що ця доповідь викличе глибоку дискусію. З. Вона завершила свій експеримент і доповіла про його результати на семінарі. 4. Він підкреслив важливість досліджень, що проводились його колегами. 5. Після того, як дисертація була написана, аспірант подав її до Наукової Ради університету. б. Вони запропонували, щоб наступна конференція проводилась в їхньому дослідницькому інституті. 7. Ми знали, що офіційною мовою конференції буде англійська, і писали свої резюме англійською. 8. Опоненти запитали доповідача, на які дослідження він посилався. 9. Вона наголосила на тому, що це дослідження буде особливо перспективним в найближчому майбутньому. 10. На останньому засіданні кафедри ми обговорювали доповіді, що будуть відіслані на міжнародну конференцію.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 13. Read and translate adjectives used to qualify

previous, earlier, recent, further; direct, experimental; sufficient;

clear; good , strong, convincing, conclusive, definitive;

evidence straightforward, unequivocal, comparable;

indirect, insufficient, ambiguous, equivocal, unconvincing,

inconclusive, incomparable.

Exercise 14. Translate into Ukrainian:

1. There is now good evidence which suggests that the system is put into action.

2. To my knowledge there is fairly convincing evidence suggesting that the northern and southern parts of the British Isles were once separated by an ocean.

3. Unequivocal evidence is now available showing that these structures account for metabolism acceleration.

4. So far there is no direct evidence that this interaction occurs.

5. Detailed evidence concerning these effects is still lacking.

6. Their evidence is quite straightforward and unequivocal. We can, therefore, look at it as quite reliable.

Exercise 15. 1.Combining A, B and C complete the sentences showing availability or lack of evidence, its characteristics and what it suggests. 2. Compose similar sentences concerning the evidence on the problem you are investigating.

A			B	C
There is At present there is At present we have	some enough sufficient	evidence	showing suggesting indicating	that the system is working. that the process is occurring. that the change is due to…
			which shows which suggests which indicates
Until now there is So far there is We (still) have	little insufficient not much not enough
			to show to suggest to indicate	a structural change in… correlation between… the extent to which…
			in favour of favouring supporting	the above hypothesis. these views. that assumption.

Exercise 16. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences showing the source of evidence. 2. Compose similar sentences concerning the evidence on the problem you are investigating.

A			B		C
Some Sufficient Further Good	evidence	of… for… against	is (so far) has been was (then) can be could be	obtained	from experiments with… with this technique in studies of…
		in favour of
				provided	in experiments with… by these experiments
No (clear) (direct) (further) (such)
				observed	in experiments with… with this technique
				seen	using this method in experiments with…
			is/was can/could be	reported available	in literature

Exercise 17. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences showing interpretation or possible evaluation of the evidence obtained.

A	B		C
We can (therefore) We must (therefore)	regard consider view look at interpret treat	this evidence	as quite conclusive. as fully consistent with…
			in terms of our previous findings. in terms of current concepts.
There is (every) reason to We have (every) reason to
			from another standpoint. from a different angle.

Exercise 18. Translate into English:

1. До цього часу немає прямих доказів, що підтверджують це припущення. 2. Є недостатньо доказів того, що ці зміни викликані зниженням температури. 3. Докази на користь цієї концепції були отримані з використанням нового методу. 4. В літературі відсутні жодні прямі докази проти цієї гіпотези. 5. Є всі причини вважати ці докази такими, що повністю узгоджуються з нашими попередніми припущеннями.

Exercise 19. Characterize and give possible interpretation of the evidence obtained on the problem you are investigating.

Discussion of the Text

1. Speak about the role of scientific communication in promoting scientific ideas.

2. Describe your participation in the last scientific conference/ symposium.

3. Why is thorough criticism so important for research progress?

4. Describe the process of writing a scientific article.

Article for Reading and Discussion.

Assignment. Read the article and speak about the most important things in giving a lecture/talk and the ways of organizing a successful meeting/ lecture.

HOW NOT TO GIVE A LECTURE.

The escalation of all scientific activities has resulted not only in a vast increase in scientific publications but also in meetings, symposia, international conferences and lectures. With the ever-increasing pressure on the time of all professional people it is obviously important that the time spent at such meetings should be used as efficiently as possible. This can only be achieved if lectures and communications are given effectively, but it is surprising how many scientists, even quite senior ones, go on making the most elementary blunders when giving their talks.

The most important thing is that the audience should be able to hear what the speaker is saying. Some lecturers appear to think that they are confiding a deadly secret to a few people round them and speak so that only those in the front rows can possibly hear what is being said. The classical advice “Stand up, speak up, shut up” may sound a bit rude, but it could with advantage be put in front of some speakers. The trouble is that people dislike giving frank advice to their friends, and some people are very sensitive about being told of their faults.

A time limit should always be emphasized to speakers and the chairman must be firm on this aspect, exceptions being made only with distinguished visitors. This may cause some embarrassment when the chairman is much junior to the speaker, but a little tact can usually be effective. The concealed warning light is a most useful device.

Many people fail to realize what a slide should do. Some, the lazy ones, appear to think that it is only necessary to photograph a few tables (usually very extensive ones) and sections of text, and give a talk round them. Slides can be used for an excellent talk if the speaker is experienced and knows how to select and design the material on his slides. Unfortunately, what happens all too often is that a slide containing a vast amount of information in tabular or graphical form is projected on the screen and when the audience has understood about half of it the lecturer moves on to the next.

We expect not only scientific knowledge from a lecturer but also intelligence, but this is often sadly lacking. A slide should never attempt to make more than one point, the number of figures or statements should be strictly limited, and the matter should be clearly seen at the back of the theatre. Placards pinned up on the wall have the advantage that those seriously interested can go up afterwards and inspect them.

Finally, some criticism of societies, or rather of those responsible for general organization. Is it too much to ask that someone who knows where the light switches are, and how to work the auxiliary aids, should always be present to assist the lecturer? Nothing is more annoying than to find when the lecturer wishes to show his first slide that no one knows how to switch off the lights, or how to switch on the concealed light on the speaker’s desk. Finally, why should slides so often be shown upside down or sideways? This may be the fault of the person who has made the slide, but there is really no excuse for any of these annoying interruptions to the flow of the speaker’s ideas. It should be the regular duty of the chairman and the organizers of any lecture or meeting to check all this before the meeting in order to ensure that everything goes smoothly once the meeting has started.

From “Oral Practice for Science Students”.

UNIT 8

Text: Protection of the Environment.

Grammar: Subjunctive Mood. Conditional Sentences.

Scientific Writing: Assumption.

Protection of the Environment

For centuries Man has considered himself to be the King of Nature. He took from Nature everything he needed for life: water, air, fuel, food. He never thought that natural resources were limited. As time went on Man's relation with Nature changed. An increasing population with greater requirements made new demands on the resources of the Earth. Indus­trial revolution accompanied by scientific and technological progress re­sulted in ever-growing consumption of natural resources. It cannot be denied that the price for rapid industrial development is very high: many natural resources are exhausted, the ecological balance of the planet is disturbed, some species of flora and fauna disappear, city and industry waters, chemicals and fertilizers are endangering fresh water sources. Progress can be blamed for all these problems.

Since recent time the word "environment" has been repeatedly used when speaking about the surrounding world. In the broad sense it includes the non-living aspects of the place where an organism lives (its physical environment) and the living things that affect the organism (its biotic environment). Damaging of water resources, the pollution of air, the exhaustion of natural re­sources are the problems concerning our environment. Thanks to sci­ence we know more than ever before about the forces that cause envi­ronmental problems. Ecology, a specific branch of biology, that deals with the relation of living things to their environment, has accumulated a lot of information about the people's impact on nature.

The problems of nature protection have received great publicity. Campaign for environ­ment protection is supported by public organizations and individuals. The Green Peace Movement, a world public non-political organization, is the most active among them. People begin to understand that if there were no fresh air to breathe, no fresh water to drink, no healthy food to eat life on our planet would be impossible. More and more people realize the necessity of a strict contamination control to keep our environment clean.

Environmental protection is a global problem. Any serious damage to environment is not confined to a single place and its consequences may be felt hundreds and thousands of kilometers away. Thus, the acci­dent at the Chornobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986 caused radio­active contamination of vast areas in Ukraine and affected other Euro­pean states as well. Environmental problems have grown beyond the concern of a single country. It is quite natural that conservation of na­ture and protection of our environment can only be achieved by joint national and international efforts. Our planet, the Earth, is large yet small, and we all must help it stay healthy.

Notes to the text

1. to make a demand on something—to use, to take up some­thing;

2. ever-growing consumption of natural resources — increas­ing use of food, energy, materials, etc.;

3. to disturb the balance — to bring something to unsteady, uncertain condition;

4. progress can be blamed for all these problems — scientific and technological revolution is responsible (can be accused)for breaking down the environment;

5. the problems …have received great publicity — the prob­lems have been brought to the attention of the public through mass media and other sources of information;

6. a global problem — a problem affecting all the humanity, the whole world and all nations;

7. beyond the concern of a single country - something that has relations to or is of any importance to more than one country.

Active Vocabulary

1. environment— довкілля, навколишнє середовище; syn. surrounding world; environmental — той, що стосується довкілля;

2. protection — захист, збереження; syn. conservation;

3. to exhaust — вичерпувати повністю, використовувати до кінця;виснажувати;exhaustion — вичерпання, виснаження, повне використання;

4. tо disturb— 1) порушувати; 2) заважати;

5. species (sing. and pl.) — вид, різновид (біологічний);

6. flora — флора, рослинний світ,

7. fauna — фауна, тваринний світ; syn wildlife;

8. damage — ушкодження, збитки;

9. pollution — забруднення, syn. contamination;

10.to accumulate — накопичувати; accumulation —накопичення;

11. impact- 1) вплив; 2) зіткнення;

12. beyond — за, поза (чимось): beyond belief—неймовірно;beyond reach — в недосяжності.

Comprehension

1. What are advantages and disadvantages of industrial devel­opment?

2. How is the word "environment" understood in broad sense?

3. What science deals with environmental protection?

4. Why is nature conservation considered to be a global prob­lem?

5. How could environmental problems be solved?

Word Study

Exercise I. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases and use them in the sentences of your own:

довкілля; обмежені природні ресурси; споживання, що зростає; виснаження природних запасів; екологічний баланс; види флори та фауни; забруднення повітря; ушкодження русла рік; негативний вплив на природу; широко висвітлюватись у суспільстві; радіоактивне забруднення великих територій; об’єднані зусилля всіх народів.

Exercise 2. Find in the text synonyms to the following words:

surrounding world; use; wildlife; to accuse smb/smth; pollution; to limit; effect/result; protection.

Exercise 3. Сompose the pairs of opposites:

1. clearance	1.	solution
2. demand	2.	consequence
3. increase	3.	general
4. appear	4.	unlimited
5. maintain	5.	supply
6. specific	6.	slow
7. problem	7.	disappear
8. cause	8.	decrease
9. confined	9.	disturb
10. rapid	10. contamination

Exercise 4. Complete the sentences using the text:

I . … is a global problem. 2. An increasing population with greater re­quirements made. . .3. Industrial revolution resulted in ... 4. ... blamed for all these problems. 5. In a broad sense the word ''environment" in­cludes ... 6. Ecology deals with... 7. ... have received great publicity. 8. More and more people realize ... 9. Effective environmental protec­tion can only be achieved by ... 10 ... beyond the concern of a single country.

Exercise 5. Join the two halves of these sentences so that they make good sense:

1.For centuries people took everything for their life from nature… 2. These species of animals have disappeared… 3. He raised this problem in the local newspaper… 4. Acid rains are dangerous…5.The consumption of oil is constantly growing…6. This campaign won’t affect their decision… 7.Technical progress is inevitable… 8.Please, check the degree of water contamination… 9.We shall not launch this project… 10.The management of the plant denied all the accusations…

a. although it causes a lot of environmental problems. b. whereas everybody knew who was to blame for the disaster. c. so that its resources will soon be exhausted. d. unless it is supported by the local community. e. until its environmental impacts are evaluated. f. because they damage the environment. g. so that it could receive great publicity. h. after they launched a chemical plant in this region. i. and never thought about the consequences. j. while they release their wastes into the river.

Exercise 6. Translate into English:

1. Протягом сторіч людина вважала, що багатства природи невичерпні. 2. Які види флори й фауни характерні для Карпатського регіону? 3. Забруднення джерел питної води порушило баланс у цій екосистемі. 4. Ефективного захисту довкілля не можна досягти в окремо взятій країні. 5. Вирішення цієї проблеми потребує об’єднаних зусиль всього людства.

6.Проблеми захисту природи стали надбанням широкої громадськості. 7.Майже всі студенти біологічного факультету беруть активну участь у діяльності руху „Зелений світ”. 8. Науково-технічний прогрес несе відповідальність за виникнення екологічних катастроф.9. Науковці глибоко вивчають факти впливу людини на природу та їх наслідки. 10. Людина і оточуюче середовище становлять єдиний організм, який необхідно підтримувати в рівновазі.

Structure Study

Exercise 7. Make the following conditional sentences unreal, first re­ferring them to the present and future, then referring them to the past. Add time modifiers if necessary, translate into Ukrainian:

Model: 1. If he comes early we shall discuss this problem. 2. If he сame early we should discuss this problem .3. If he had come early yesterday we should have discussed this problem.

I. If the ecological balance is disturbed, these animals will disappear. 2. If there is no water, they will not survive. 3. If we work harder, we shall finish our experiment earlier. 4. If we do not join our efforts, we shall not solve this problem. 5. If he receives the invitation, he will definitely participate in the conference. 6. If the plant discharges chemicals into the river, this fresh water source will be endangered.

Exercise 8. Following the model make inversion and translate the sen­tences:

Model: If I had known about this, I would never had done it.- 1.Had I known about this, I would never have done it. 2. I would never have done it, had I known about this.

I. If they had submitted their abstracts in time, the committee would have accepted them. 2. If he had raised this problem in due time, it would have received general publicity. 3. If they had not built this dam, the watercourse wouldn't have been damaged. 4. If such paper were published it would arise some critical discussion. 5. If he didn’t take some measures, the catastrophe would follow.

Exercise 9. Rewrite the following sentences according to the model. Remember, that after "unless " the verb is used in the affirmative.

Model: He will not call if he does not need your help. — He will not call unless he needs your help.

1. You won't speak English well if you don’t practice it every day. 2.I shouldn't have read this article if he hadn't shown me this journal. 3. The ecological problems wouldn’t have arisen if the ecological balance hadn't been disturbed. 4. The decease shouldn't have spread so quickly if air hadn't been polluted. 5. We’d have had more animal species in our forests if the fresh water sources hadn't been exhausted.

Exercise 10. Make up 10 sentences from each table.

It is	necessary important desirable recommended	that	he should attend all the seminars. the experiment should be discussed . we should complete our research in time. all the papers should be examined. they should perform necessary tests.
	strange surprising natural impossible		you should have made so many mistakes. he shouldn't have prepared his report . they should have canceled the conference. she shouldn't have read that article.
It was
He She	ordered suggested proposed recommended advised	that	we should finish our discussion. they should meet after the conference. John should explain the data obtained. Mr. Smith should head the committee. the representatives of the plant should be called . the break should be announced . the necessary measures should be taken. the Committee should award him the prize.

Exercise 11. Use the verb in brackets in the correct form:

1. If only you had let me know, I (to go) there immediately. 2. You say that you didn’t read yesterday papers; if you (to read) them you (to learn) about Prof. X’s arrival. 3. If the problem (not to be) so urgent it would not have caused such a heated discussion. 4. You would have come to different conclusions if you (to check) your calculations more accurately. 5. I wish you (to be) present at the conference yesterday – the speaker’s report was brilliant. 6. He will never finish his work if he (to waste) his time like that. 7. Had he been told about this earlier, he (to take) all necessary measures. 8. I insist that you (to consult) your adviser before reporting these results. 9. You look upset. I wish the news (not to upset) you so badly. 10. We would help him in his work if he (to rely) on us.

Exercise 12. Translate into English:

1 . Якби не було чистого повітря і води, люди не могли б жити. 2. Якщо ти допоможеш мені, я впораюсь з роботою вчасно. 3. Ми б ніколи не розв'язали цю проблему, якби не об’єднали наші зусилля .4. Якби захист довкілля не пригортав такої уваги громадськості, багато видів рослин і тварин вже давно 6 зникли. 5. Ця територія не була б радіоактивно забрудненою, якби не було Чорнобильської аварії. 6. Якби людство раніше звернуло увагу на захист природи, його життя було б більш безпечним. 7. Якщо науково-технічні відкриття будуть застосовані на благо природи, ми збережемо нашу планету для майбутніх поколінь.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 13. Read and translate adjectives used to qualify

earlier, recent, preliminary, further; basic, chief; tentative;

assumption (in)correct, (un)true, (in)valid; erroneous.

Exercise 14. Translate into Ukrainian:

1. The basic assumption that the authors proceeded from was merely a tentative one. 2. The assumption we have made was totally erroneous.

3. Previous assumptions made by several workers in the field proved to be correct and were further supported by a large body of experimental evidence. 4. The earlier assumption that we made holds true only for equilibrium conditions. 5. The authors failed to confirm their earlier assumption that the processes are interrelated.

Exercise 15. 1. Combining A and B complete the sentences characterizing an assumption. 2. Characterize the assumption you proceed from in your research.

A			B
There is		an /the assumption	that	the changes are due to… such effects depend largely on… this tendency is responsible for… the substance involved is… these changes are brought about by…
We start(ed) The author(s) proceed(ed)	from
The theory is based His/This method rests	on
Our basic assumption is The author assume(d) These data lead us/the author(s) to assume

Exercise 16. 1. Combining A, B and C complete sentences showing agreement or disagreement with a certain assumption. 2. Write similar sentences concerning your research.

A	B			C
What we observe(d) What the author(s) report(s)(ed	does/do not contradict (fully) contradict(s)			the his their our	basic earlier recent	assumption that…
	does/do not agree (fully) agree(s)		with
These data Our findings Some of our results	is/are	in good agreement in disagreement fully consistent inconsistent
	is not
	are not

Exercise17. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences expressing support for a particular assumption

A	B			C
This assumption Our recent assumption What we assumed	is was has been	fully partly further	confirmed supported corroborated substantiated	by N. in studies with… in experiments on/with…

Exercise 18. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences expressing validity or limitation of an assumption

A	B		C
This (earlier) assumption The author’s assumption What we (have) assumed What has been assumed What was assumed earlier	is/is not was/was not has/has not been		true. valid. wrong. erroneous. the case.
	seems/does not seem seemed/did not seem	to be
	holds/does not hold		true for… true. wrong.
	seems/does not seem seemed/did not seem	to hold

Exercise 19. Translate into English:

1. Існує припущення, що ці процеси відбуваються одночасно.

2. Попереднє припущення автора було в подальшому підтверджене експериментально.

3. Ці результати добре узгоджуються з нашими початковими припущеннями.

4. Наші дані повністю протирічать припущенню автора.

5. Це попереднє припущення не справдилось для всіх температурних режимів.

Exercise 20. Write an account of assumptions you make in your research and of those made by other workers in your field on the topic you are investigating.

Discussion of the Text

1. Speak about the interdependence between people and nature.

2. Speak about the importance of ecological education.

3. Give examples of the joint scientific programmes in the field of environmental protection.

Article for Reading and Discussion

Assignment. Read the extract below and speak about the current trends in European environmental research.

GREENER AND MORE SUSTAINABLE.

Our well-being is not determined solely by what we eat or by advances in medical treatment, but also by the state of the world around us. Managing our resources effectively, safeguarding biodiversity, minimising pollution and tackling global change are just some of the challenges we face.

Research on the life sciences, agronomy, the exploitation of marine resources, new materials, industrial technologies, energy – in fact all the components of contemporary progress – must now take account of the need for sustainable development.

A key factor here is the relationship between energy production and consumption. The European Union is supporting research into ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to develop technologies that use renewable energies, such as biomass, wind, solar and wave power. The target is for these sources to supply 12% of the EU’s energy needs by 2010.

Transport accounts for one-third of European energy consumption and for almost 30% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Scientists are examining ways to reduce car pollution, for example by using alternative fuels, and to develop new production techniques which will lead to improved quality, safety, comfort, cost and environmental effectiveness.

International cooperation is a feature of the Union’s environmental research. It is working with NASA on the Theseo-Solve project which is studying the chemistry and physics of the atmosphere. For over a decade, balloons and aircraft have been taking measurements in the stratosphere to assess depletion of the ozone layer at different altitudes.

From “Looking beyond tomorrow:

Scientific research in the European Un

UNIT 9

Text: Science and International Co-operation.

Grammar: The Verbals (Gerund, Infinitive).

Complexes with the verbals.

Scientific Writing: Hypothesis.

Science and International Co-operation

One of the most striking characteristics of modern science has been the increasing trend towards closer co-operation between scientists and scientific institutions all over the world

What have been the reasons for this? One of the factors is the growing complexity and widening scope of present-day research, which has re­sulted in the creation of large organizations employing great numbers of scientists and technologists in programmes of directed research. This has inevitably led to the extension of many items of research beyond national boundaries.

The most important factor, however, has been the magnitude of the problems to be solved. In fact, it is becoming more and more evident that many of the problems affecting the world today cannot be solved except by the pooling of scientific effort and material resources on a world-wide scale. The exploration of space, world finance and the de­velopment of new sources of power, such as atomic energy — these are examples of areas of scientific research which are so costly and compli­cated that no single country or organization, working by itself, can hope to tackle them efficiently.

A third powerful reason has been the increasing political and eco­nomic interdependence of nations, both rich and poor. This has had a direct effect on large areas of scientific and technological investigation, such as those connected with armaments, communications, health, agri­culture, economic planning and sociological research.

As a result of the conditions outlined above, international co-opera­tion has been greatly intensified during the last 20 years, largely owing to the initiative of the United Nations Organization (U N O.) and its specialized agencies, in particular the United Nations Educational, Scien­tific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Thus the most urgent prob­lem for many parts of the world, i.e food production, is being dealt with by the Food and Agriculture Organization (F.A.O.). The World Health Organization (W.H.О.), another UN agency, not only co-ordinates many research projects on medicine all over the world, but supplies advice and aid in the control of diseases in underdeveloped areas. Technical and economic assistance is provided by other UN bodies such as the Eco­nomic and Social Council (ECOSOC) or the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) and similar agencies for other regions of the world.

Apart from the international agencies controlled by the UN, many scientific and technological organizations, both governmental and pri­vately owned, are pooling their resources and incorporating themselves into supra-national bodies. A good example is the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) with over 20 member-coun­tries throughout the world. Universities, too, are tending to develop joint research projects with their counterparts in other parts of the world. And finally, many scientific disciplines have had_, for a long time past, their own international unions and associations whose main functions are the dissemination of information, the co-ordination of research and the stand­ardization of measurements and nomenclature.

Science, then, seems to be playing a major role in the creation of the "One World" of the statesmen’s dream.

Notes to the Text

1. striking characteristics — notable, impressive features (indications) _; 2. items of research — objects (points) of investigation_;

3. to tackle smth efficiently — to deal with smth effectively, to cope with;

4. the most urgent problem — the most pressing (primary, serious, principal) problem;

5. supra-national bodies — over- national organizations;

6. nomenclature—1) a set or list of names, terms used in some field of science, art, technique;

2) persons whose appointment depends on superior organization.

Active Vocabulary.

1. reason - n. 1)причина, 2) розум, 3)сенс; v. 1)міркувати, 2)благати, 3)переконувати;

2. complexity - складність, ускладненість;

3. inevitably – неминуче;

4. extension – поширення, продовження;

5. costly - коштовний, витратний;

6. to tackle – братися до ... енергійно;

7. to outline – окреслити, намітити;

8. counterpart – партнер;

9. dissemination – розповсюдження;

10.urgent – нагальний, терміновий, невідкладний.

Comprehension

1. What is one of the increasing trends in modern science?

2. What are the three main reasons for the increase in international co-operation in science and technology?

3. What is the role of the UN in this process?

4. Name some UN agencies and say what work each has carried out.

5. On what other levels beside the UN agencies is scientific co-operation carried out?

6. What organizations are concerned with the standardization of scientific nomenclature?

7. What statesmen’s dream is science making into reality?

Word Study

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases and use them in the sentences of your own:

теми досліджень; вражаючі риси; обумовлювати; складність умов; поширювати сфери впливу; невідкладні проблеми; взаємозалежність партнерів; коштовне обладнання; енергійно братися до справи; розвивати плани наукового дослідження.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences using the text:

I. It has inevitably led to… 2. The most important factor, however ... 3. Many of the problems affecting the world today… 4. These are examples of areas of scientific research… 5. A third powerful reason… 6. Thus the most urgent problem for... 7. Apart from the interna­tional agencies… 8...many scientific disciplines have had their own…

Exercise 3. Compound nouns and noun phrases are frequently used in the text for the reason of conciseness, e.g. food production-- the production of food. Pick out all compound nouns in the text.

Exercise 4. Take words from list A and add them to the appropriate words in list B to form compound nouns; translate them.

A: cancer, health, research, probability, vacuum, sea, mountain, mercury, life, water, metal, air;

B: column, pump, fatigue, study, level, top, theory, organization, research , bottom, pressure, cycle.

E xercise 5. Form compound nouns from each of the following phrases. Remember to be careful about plurals.

I. A theory about the waves of earthquakes. 2. A study concerned with the distribution of the population. 3. A textbook about the analysis of vectors. 4. Chemistry of the nucleus of cells. 5. Techniques applicable to the breeding of plants. 6. Measurements of the transfer of heat. 7. Inter­pretation of photographs taken by X-rays. 8. An indicator for measuring the speed of the air. 9. Devices for the control of the flow of heat. 10. The production of machinery for the farm.

Exercise 6. The suffix -ify forms verbs from the corresponding adjec­tives, e.g. intense- to intensify, meaning: to make intense. Form verbs from the following adjectives:

pure; simple; rare, liquid, solid; united; (there is a change of spelling for liquid and united).

Exercise 7. Translate into English.

1. Сучасній науці притаманна тенденція до більш тісної співпраці науковців та наукових закладів всього світу. 2. Наукові дослідження у багатьох галузях є настільки складними, що жодна організація самотужки не може братися за них. 3. Наукове співробітництво спричинене необхідністю координувати наукові пошуки у світовому масштабі. 4. В рамках ООН діють багато організацій та агентств, що надають наукову, технічну та економічну допомогу багатьом регіонам світу. 5. Міжнародні наукові спілки та асоціації розповсюджують інформацію, координують дослідження та керують спільними науковими проектами.

Structure Study

Exercise 8. Write various forms of the infinitive according to the model:

a) Indefinite Passive (to translate- to be translated): to receive, to defend, to defeat, to tell, to write;

b) Continuous Active (to translate – to be translating): to develop, to discuss, to look, to give, to examine;

c) Perfect Passive (to translate – to have been translated): to send, to finish, to teach, to discuss;

d)Perfect Continuous ( to translate – to have been translating): to live, to work, to tell, to teach, to look through.

Exercise 9. Choose the right form of the infinitive:

1. The article is difficult… a) to have translated; b)to be translating; c)to translate.

2. They proved unable … the dispute. a) to settle; b)to have been settled; c)to be settled;

3. The children are glad … music. a) to be taught; b)to have taught; c)to be teaching;

4. You seem … weight. a) to be lost; b)to have lost; c)to have been lost;

5. He pretended … a) to have read; b) to be reading; c) to be read.

Exercise 10. State the function of the Infinitive.

1. To acquire knowledge is the first duty of the student. 2. His intention is to get into Parliament. 3.She had learned to dance at school. 4. Here is the article to be translated. 5. Our aim is to master English. 6. Laws were not made to be broken, they were made to stay within. 7. He asked me to walk in. 8. Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. 9. I was too busy to see anyone.

Exercise 11. Make up 5 sentences from each table.

I He She We You They	saw heard watched noticed	me him her us you them	enter/ entering the laboratory. turn/ turning the page. conduct/ conducting the experiment. read/ reading the report. perform/ performing the computation. discuss/ discussing the results.
	made let
I He She We You They	want(s) wanted expect(s) expected should like would like	me him her us you them	to speak English. to work here. to dwell on the subject. to answer the letter. to thank for the invitation. to complete the research by May.
I He She We You They	considered believed thought knew supposed	me him her us you them	to be clever. to be an honest person. to be about twenty-five. to be a serious researcher. to be a person devoted to science. to be the author of the hypothesis.

Exercise 12. Change the following complex sentences into simple ones using the Objective Infinitive/ Objective Participle Complexes.

1. We watched the young people as they discussed/ were discussing the report. 2. Nobody noticed her as she left the room. 3. I head them as they argued/ were arguing. 4. We expect that he will come in time. 5. Her wish was that they should tell the truth. 6. I knew that she was very industrious. 7. They believe that he is very honest. 8.My wish is that she should become a good professional.

Exercise 13. Make up 5 sentences from each table.

I He She We You They	am is are	reported said	to know this language. to be writing an article. to have completed the research. to be conducting an experiment. to have been writing thesis for 3 years.
	was were
I He She We You They	am is are	expected believed known considered supposed	to arrive at the conference tomorrow. to be very persistent. to be interested in the humanities. to have finished the report. to have graduated from the University.
	was were
I He She We You They	am is are	seen watched noticed heard	to leave the room. to discuss the results. to perform the calculation. to consult the adviser. to be delivering the report.
	was were
I He She We You They	seem(s) appeared happened proved chanced	to understand English.
		to have met before. to know the subject well. to be explaining the rule. to have been working with this equipment for a long time.

Exercise І4. Transform the following complex sentences into simple ones using the Subjective Infinitive Complex:

1. It is said that they work in the laboratory. 2. It is believed that she knows several foreign languages. 3. It is supposed that we have com­pleted the draft. 4. It is believed that he is writing a historic essay. 5. It is reported that the spaceship has reached the Mars. 6. It is supposed that the book will be published next year. 7. It was expected that the weather would be fine. 8. It seems that he is delivering his report at the moment. 9. It turned out that the examination was very difficult. 10. It proved that you were right.

Exercise 15. Transform the sentences using the Subjective Infinitive Complex instead of the Objective Infinitive Complex according to the model:

Model: I saw her read the letter. - She was seen to read the letter.

1. We heard her talk to the students. 2.They saw the professor leave the room.3. You expect him to return in a fortnight. 4. Everybody supposed him to have completed his research. 5. We all believed him to have defended his thesis successfully. 6. I expect the telegram to be sent to­morrow.

Exercise 16. Transform the following complex sentences into simple ones using the Absolute Participle Construction as in the models.

Model: As the weather was fine, we went for a walk. - The weather being fine, we went for a walk.

I. As 1 live far from the institute, I go there by car. 2. As he visited England several times, we heard a lot of interesting from him. 3. As the book is very popular, it is difficult to get it.

Model: As he had been to England, we asked him to tell us about it. - He having been to England, we asked him to tell us about it.

1. As the work had been finished, we went home. 2. After the rain had stopped, we went home. 3. As my friend had bought the tickets in ad­vance, we didn't have to hurry.

Model: As the bridge was destroyed, we couldn't cross the river.- The bridge being destroyed, we couldn’t cross the river.

I. As the book was being printed, we hoped to get it soon. 2. As all shops were closed, we couldn't buy anything. 3. As the equipment was being examined we couldn't start our work.

Exercise 17. State the function of the gerund in the sentences:

1. Swimming in cold water is unpleasant but useful for health. 2. Wait­ing for the Professor was a lame excuse for doing nothing. 3. Joseph could not help admiring the man. 4. She enjoyed singing and playing for him. 5. After leaving her umbrella in the hall she entered the living room. 6. He was born with the gift of winning hearts. 7. In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.

Exercise 18. Use gerunds instead of subordinate clauses.

I. When you consider the question, don't forget to use latest informa­tion on the subject (in). 2. When the delegation completed its tour over the country, it left for home (on). 3. Before you go to visit her, make sure she is at home. 4. A student can improve his pronunciation if he works with a tape-recorder (by). 5. The students developed their speaking skills because they practised their English every day (through).

Exercise 19. Translate into English using the Subjective infinitive Con­struction and the Objective infinitive Construction.

1. Я бачив, як він увійшов у кімнату. 2. Я не чекав, що ви поїдете так скоро. З. Він хотів, щоб я пішов пообідати з ним. 4. Мама не любить, коли ви так говорите. 5. Відомо, що римляни збудували на Британських островах багато фортець та доріг. 6. Вальтер Скотт вважається засновником історичного роману. 7. Вони, здавалось, вже зовсім забули його. 8. Вважають, що конференція відбудеться в Лондоні. 9. Кажуть, що вона схожа на батька.

Scientific Writing

Exercise 20. Read and translate adjectives used to evaluate

basic; alternative; tentative, working; correct, true, valid

hypothesis plausible, probable, reliable; satisfactory, good, helpful,

stimulating, promising; interesting, attractive, fascinating,

incorrect, untrue, invalid, improbable, unreliable.

Exercise 21. Read and translate the following passage; answer the questions below:

Hypotheses, I presume, are the first step in creating and formulating a scientific theory. Before that is achieved a hypothesis has to be fully substantiated and sufficiently supported by experiment which, in turn, requires a certain working or tentative hypothesis.

Would that be a correct way of reasoning? What are some of the working hypotheses that you rely on in your approach to the problem you investigate?

Exercise 22. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences explaining the purpose of the hypothesis. 2. Write about the purpose of the hypothesis you suggest in your investigation.

A	B			C
The hypothesis Several hypotheses A number of hypotheses	is/are was/were have/has been		offered suggested put forward	to explain to account for	that interesting phenomenon. the mechanism of… the process of… the causes of… the changes in …
The authors We	offered suggested	this hypothesis

Exercise 23. 1. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences stating the main idea of the hypothesis.

2. Write about the essence of the hypothesis you have advanced.

A	B		C
This hypothesis The hypothesis advanced by… We suggested a hypothesis which Our working hypothesis	holds claims maintains implies	that	the interaction is due to… the modifications result from… the structure remains intact. the observed effect is reversible. these effects are caused by…
A hypothesis was advanced according to which According to this hypothesis As follows from the hypothesis

Exercise 24. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences characterizing the ways of verifying a hypothesis.

A		B		C
We (have)	made performed carried out initiated attempted	a number of several sets of many sets of	experiments	to check to verify to test to support to prove to disprove to substantiate	our hypothesis. this hypothesis. the validity of… the hypothesis that…
We have undertaken They undertook		special many a number of	studies

Exercise 24. Combining A, B and C complete the sentences characterizing the ways of verifying a hypothesis.

A		B		C
We (have)	made performed carried out initiated attempted	a number of several sets of many sets of	experiments	to check to verify to test to support to prove to disprove to substantiate	our hypothesis. this hypothesis. the validity of… the hypothesis that…
We have undertaken They undertook		special many a number of	studies

Exercise 25. Translate into English.

1. Було запропоновано декілька гіпотез, що пояснюють механізм цієї дії. 2. Згідно гіпотези, запропонованої Р. ще на початку 20 ст., поведінка визначається фізіологічними процесами. 3.Ця робоча гіпотеза повністю узгоджується з нашими припущеннями. 4. Ми запропонували гіпотезу, яку можна застосувати лише для окремих випадків. 5. Ми провели ряд експериментів, які повністю підтвердили нашу робочу гіпотезу.

Discussion of the Text.

1. Speak about the reasons of closer scientific co-operation.

2. What international agencies controlled by the UN promote scientific co-operation and how?

3. Speak about the joint research projects developed in your university/institute.

Article for Reading and Discussion.

Assignment. Read the extract below and speak about the modern history of scientific cooperation in Europe and the basic idea that lies behind the ERA.

CREATING THE EUROPEAN RESEARCH AREA

Too often in the past, research scientists have seen their colleagues, especially those in other countries, as competitors rather than potential collaborators. Previous EU framework programmes began to move towards cross-border cooperation in research. But this was not enough. At their European Summit in Lisbon in March 2000, EU leaders recognized that something much more ambitious and effective was needed, and they called for the creation of the European Research Area. The ERA is a frontier-free zone in which scientific resources can be used more efficiently to create more jobs and to make Europe more competitive.

The purpose of the ERA is to:

-coordinate the framework programme with other international, national and regional research initiatives;

-encourage research centres to accept researchers from other countries;

-share the results of their work.

This means breaking down the barriers which have so far divided Europe’s scientific community into a patchwork of national teams. It means putting the continent’s best brains in touch with each other and encouraging them to pool their efforts, concentrate on excellence and work towards shared goals.

Just as the single market has abolished border barriers for goods, services, people and capital, so the ERA is enabling scientists to work and cooperate on projects throughout the entire European Union. The free flow of ideas and resources will give European researchers the wider opportunities their US counterparts already enjoy.

Collaboration among scientists is now more intense, but it is not new. For more than 30 years, COST (European cooperation in the field of scientific and technological research) has provided a practical framework for coordinating nationally funded programmes. It has created a vast network, involving almost 30000 scientists from 34 European countries, and institutions as far away as China, Japan, Russia, India and Canada on projects ranging from transport and telecommunications to food technology, fluid dynamics and informatics.

Scientific cooperation also takes place in bodies such as the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), the European Southern Observatory (ESO), the European Northern Observatory (ENO) and the European Space Agency.

The Joint Research Centre (JRC) is the Union’s own research body. In addition to providing independent advice and technical support for the European Commission, it carries out its own scientific research – helping to create a safer, cleaner, healthier and more competitive Europe. This work directly benefits the Union’s citizens. Another important role for the IRC is to coordinate research in Europe (and further afield) in three main areas:

-food, chemicals and health;

-environment and sustainability;

-nuclear safety and security.

With an overall staff of 2 100 and an annual budget of some € 300 million the JRC operates at seven sites across the European Union.

From “Looking beyond tomorrow:

Scientific research in the European Union”.

UNIT 10

Text: Science and the Future

Grammar: Types of Sentences

Scientific Writing: Theory

Science and the Future

We have already examined briefly some of the characteristics, meth­ods, effects and problems of present-day science. Let us consider a few of the ways in which it may develop in the near future, i.e. the next decades or so.

To begin with, we can expect applied science to produce a vast (huge, enormous) increase in entirely new synthetic products of all types. These will range from light-weight, high-strength materials for use in many specialized branches of engineering, to drugs and chemicals with a greatly increased selectivity which can be used in medicine and agricul­ture. However, in this latter case in particular, it may be predicted that the wide-spread application and combination of new and more complex products will give rise to unexpected inter-reactions or side-effects. For this reason, greatly intensified programmes of research will be required in order to discover and eliminate the harmful results of such combina­tions.

Another point is that the rapid expansion of industrialization must lead to a progressive exhaustion of natural resources. If we wish to counterbalance these losses to some extent, we shall have to follow two main courses of action: a) much greater efforts will have to be applied to conservation of soil, water, fuels and minerals; b) more efficient meth­ods of exploitation and utilization will have to be developed.

In the more developed countries, the automatization of industry (automation) will lead to a high degree of efficiency in the production of manufactured goods, and is likely to have far-reaching social effects. For instance, workers will need to be more highly trained and more flexible — they will probably have to be capable of changing from one skilled job to another -and they also will have more free time, as they will work fewer hours per day. This, in turn, will necessitate a considerable expansion and re-orientation of education. Another result of automation should be to accelerate the accumulation of surplus capital. Then it will be available to assist the merging countries to solve some of the problems of underdevelopment.

In general, the application — or misapplication — of science and technology in all fields is certain to affect the structure of society as a whole. We can predict the development of a special discipline, whose job will be to estimate (evaluate) the social consequences of all major research and development (R £ D) projects before they are put up into large-scale operation.

One of the most powerful trends in present-day science is for sepa­rate branches to converge and form inter-related groups of studies. If this trend continues, it may lead to the emergence of an entirely new type of scientist, і.e. the multidisciplinary coordinator.

International co-operation has become greatly intensified in recent years, and this tendency will become stronger in the future. It is likely that the scientific efforts of individual countries will tend to be unified and coordinated by supra-national entities, and the more this is done, the greater the probability that supra-national governments will eventu­ally be set up.

National governments, also, will closer and closer contact science. To quote only one reason, the State will have to provide an increasingly large proportion of the money spent on scientific investigations and there­fore will play an increasingly important role in the planning of R £ D programmes. In future we might witness a scientific revolution in poli­tics, or a political revolution in science — or both.