How to set goals

There are six main steps in setting goals to obtain optimal results:

1. Specify the goal to be reached of the tasks to be done. What do you want to accomplish?

2. Specify how the performance will be measured. Some outcomes can be measured more easily than others. Work outcomes (the results achieved) typically are measured according to one of three parameters:

Physical units: For example, quantity of production, market share, number of errors, number of rejects (quality control).

Time: For example, meeting deadlines, servicing customers, completing a project, coming to work each day, being punctual.

Money: For example, profits, sales, costs, budgets, debts, income.

Sometimes, outcomes are difficult to measure, perhaps because the measurement process would be too costly or because the outcomes are affected by factors beyond an individual’s control. In such cases, it may be necessary to measure behaviours or actions rather than outcomes. For example, if a manager’s goal of overcoming worker resistance to certain impending changes is likely to be significantly affected by the action of others, it may be possible to measure crucial activities instead of outcomes. Such activities might include whether the manager clearly explains why the changes are needed, outlines how the change will affect the others, and listens to employee’s concerns. When possible, though, the goal-setting process should focus on outcomes.

3. Specify the standard of target to be reached. This step builds on the type of measures chosen in step 2 by spelling out the degree of performance to be included in the goal.

4. Specify the time span involved. To have a positive impact on performance, goals need to have a time span within which they are to be completed. In a production situation, the goal may be stated in terms of production per hour or day. In a service situation, the time frame may be oriented towards delivering the service.

Other goals, such as major projects, may have time spans involving several months or even years.

5. Prioritize the goals. When multiple goals are present, as likely with most jobs, goals need to be prioritized so that effort and action can be directed in production to the importance of each goal. Otherwise, individual effort can be focused improperly.

6. Determine coordination requirements. Before a set of goals is finalized, it is important to investigate whether achieving the goals depends on cooperation and contributions of other individuals. If so, coordination with the other individuals may be necessary. In organizations, such coordination vertically is usually relatively easy. It may be more difficult, but nevertheless important, to achieve coordination horizontally, particularly if some of the individuals report to other managers outside your work unit.

UNIT V Information Systems for Management

Part 1

Text A

Information Systems for internal organization Overview

The system of state management rests on intellectual information to which social, demographic, political, economic and other kinds of information can be referred.

The first and foremost source of information in state management is law, so information is based on the appropriate legislation. Information laws include the Constitution of Ukraine, article 4 of the Ukrainian law “About Information”, laws concerning specific fields of activity, kinds, forms and ways of information, international contracts and agreements as well as principles and norms of the international law.

The main principles of informational relationships are as follows:

• guaranteed rights to obtain information;

• acceptable information;

• full and accurate information;

• legally obtained, used and spread information.

The information system of state management focuses on subjects and objects in informational relationships. Residents of Ukraine; legal persons; a state; foreign states and their citizens and legal persons, informational organizations are referred to as subjects of informational relationships. Objects involve written or publicly announced information about events and actions in the sphere of politics, economy and culture as well as in social, ecological, international and other fields.

Nowadays the term “information system” can be interpreted in two ways. In its wide meaning the term an “information system” defines a system which is designed to produce information needed to meet requirements which are typical for management. Information systems are aimed at supporting decision making in management.

In its narrow meaning an information system is a set of procedures designed to store, retrieve, process and disseminate information to support planning, decision making, coordination, and control. A useful way to visualize information systems is to think of them as involving inputs, transformations and outputs. Such systems transform data into information.

Most experts agree that information technology is causing vast changes in the way in which information is handled and used in organizations.

The technological change in information systems has opened vast possibilities for using computers to enhance the process of management.