2 To describe cause

A that-clause must follow, giving the result.

It’s so hot that I can’t do anything.

It was such a hot day/such hot weather that we decided to stay indoors.

Note: In formal contexts it is also possible to use so + adjective (e.g. so hot) with the indefinite article and a noun (e.g. a day). In this case the article must go immediately in front of the noun.

It was a difficult journey.

It was so difficult a journey that they feared they would never achieve their goal.

Inversion can be used for dramatic effect in clauses describing causes or reasons. Again, this is more common in formal contexts.

The weather was so hot that no-one could work.

→ So hot was the weather that …

→ Such was the heat that …

It was such a difficult journey that …

→ So difficult a journey was it that …

When the main verb is not be, and there is no auxiliary verb, do is added.

He travelled so far that …

→ So far did he travel that …

UNIT 9

Verb patterns (p. 126)

When one verb follows another, various patterns are possible.

Some verbs do not take an object but are immediately followed by the second verb.

Hoped to go, but I couldn’t.

Other verbs may, or must, have an object. In this case the second verb refers to the object. (See note below.)

I wanted her to go, but she couldn’t.

In addition, depending on the first verb chosen, the second verb may be:

• an infinitive with to

• an infinitive without to (a ‘bare’ infinitive)

• and –ing form.

Most verbs take only one of these patterns, but some may take more than one patter, with or without a change of meaning.

Finally, instead of being an infinitive or an –ing form, it may be possible or obligatory for the second verb to be in a that-clause.

I told him to go.

I told him that he should go.

Verbs which can also take a that-clause are marked in the lists below.

Note: If the second verb does not refer to the preceding object, then a that-clause must be used.

I told him that Maria should go.

1 verb + verb (no object)

1 verb + to-infinitive

I have applied to go to university.

He promised to help us. (= He promised that he would help us.)

agree* arrange* apply appear* decide* fail hope* intend long plan* pretend* promise*

2 verb + -ing

We postponed making any decision.

The doctor suggested taking a holiday. (… that we should take a holiday)

admit* advise consider* deny finish postpone suggest* recommend*

3 verb + to­-infinitive or -ing

a) with little change in meaning.

I prefer working/to work alone.

begin continue hate like love prefer start

b) with a change in meaning

• dread

I dread to think what he will do. (Only used with I … think …)

I dread seeing him again.

• forget*/remember*/stop

Remember to phone him.

I can’t remember ever having seen him before.

• go on

After school he went on to study at university.

He went on studying until six o’clock in the morning.

• mean*

I didn’t mean to insult him.

The new job meant leaving everything she knew.

• regret*

I regret to tell you that your application has been unsuccessful.

I regret not having been to university.

• try

Please try to remember.

I’ve tried being strict with him, but it’s no good.

Notes:

1 In phrases such as I would like/love to …, which refer to specific hypothetical situations, the infinitive is always used.

I love going to New York. (= I often go.)

I would love to go to New York. (= I’ve never been.)

2 For several of the verbs in point b), the use of the infinitive suggests a ‘forward-looking’ meaning, while the –ing form is used when something happened before or at the same time as the action.

2 verb (+ optional object) + verb

1 verb (+ object) + to-infinitive

He chose (her to be the leader.

ask choose expect* intend need want wish*

2 verb (+ object or possessive) + -ing

We insisted on them /their being present.

I recall him/his having won first prize at school.

I appreciate you/your doing that for me.

Anticipate* appreciate* describe dislike enjoy insist on recall* risk

Notes:

1 The use of the possessive rather than the object is more forma. It is more common when the second verb applies to a person rather than an object.

2 If appreciate is followed by a that-clause, the pronoun it must be used.

I do appreciate it that you did all that work.

3 verb + for + object + to-infinitive

I have arranged for the neighbour to feed the cat.

apply arrange* long wait

Notes: These verbs cannot be followed by an object alone.

3 verb + compulsory object + verb

1 verb + object + to-infinitive

Verbs in this pattern generally have the meaning of imposing one’s will on someone else, either asking or forcing them to do something.

I forced him to take the job.

allow compel force invite order tell want

Other verbs include verbs of opinion. They are often used passively and are often followed by be + adjective.

We knew him to be trustworthy.

He is known to be trustworthy.

assume* believe* consider* imagine* know*

2 verb + object + bare infinitive

She made him go to school on his bike.

make let help

Note: Help can also be followed by a to-infinitive.

She helped him (to) cross the road.

Can’t/couldn’t help can also be followed by the –ing form when it means that someone couldn’t prevent themselves from doing something.

I couldn’t help laughing.

3 verb + object + bare infinitive or -ing

They saw her walking in the park. (action in progress)

They saw her walk across the field. (the whole action)

hear* listen to notice* see* observe* watch

Note: these are all verbs of perception.

Emphasis: Cleft sentences (p.129)

In cleft (divided) sentences, two clauses are used instead of one in order to highlight specific information. They always have a form of the verb be in one clause. There are two types of cleft sentences.

1 It + be

This type of cleft structure emphasises the word or phrase that immediately follows be. This may be a subject or object of a sentence, or an adverbial. It cannot be used to emphasise the verb.

Jane saw Peter here.

→ It was Jane who saw Peter here. (subject)

→ It was Peter (whom/who) Jane saw here. (object)

→ It was here that Jane saw Peter. (adverbial)

If there is a modal verb in the sentence, it goes before the verb be.

Jane must have seen Peter.

It must have been Jane who saw him.

It was Jane who must have seen him. X

2 What …/All … + be

1 In this type of cleft structure a noun clause beginning with what or all is used. It can emphasise any part of the sentence, including the verb.

I particularly enjoyed going to the theatre.

→ What I particularly enjoyed WAS going to the theatre.

→ Going to the theatre WAS what I particularly enjoyed.

2 The verb can be emphasised by using do in the wh-clause.

We’re searching for the best solution.

What we’re doing IS searching …

3 To emphasise the whole sentence, we can use happen.

The population has increased.

→ What has happened IS that the population has increased.

4 All can be used to replace what if it refers to the object of the clause.

I just wanted my own car.

→ All I wanted WAS my own car.