1 Logical deduction/assumption
Present
It must be true.
‘There’s someone at the door.’ ‘It’ll be Carla.’
We should be able to get there on time.
Past
It must have been an accident.
Other expressions
I expect that’s Mrs Stevens on the phone.
I’m convinced that he’s right.
I’m sure/certain that he did it.
He’s bound/sure/certain to tell everyone.
We can conclude that he was the murdered. (formal)
It follows from this that she was not guilty. (formal)
We can assume that the house was empty.
The child was presumably away at the time.
The answer is thus/therefore/hence x minus 2y. (formal, academic)
2 Possibility
I
t
might conceivably be happening. (present)
It may well happen. (future)
It could possibly have happened. (past)
N ote: The adverb well makes the possibility stronger.
It could well be true – there’s plenty of evidence.
The other adverbs stress that the situation is not certain, but do not tell us any more about the speaker’s own
viewpoint.
Other expressions:
It’s possible/conceivable that she was murdered.
There’s a strong possibility that it was Ira.
Possibly/Perhaps/Maybe she got lost.
It’s quite likely that he’ll tell us.
The likelihood is that they’ll arrive late.
The chances are that she’ll pass the exam.
I bet she’ll be pleased! (informal)
3 Uncertain possibility
Present It might/may not be true.
Future Cheer up – it might/may never happen.
Past It might/may not have happened.
Other expressions
There’s very little/not much chance/possibility that we’ll find it.
They’re not likely to see him.
It’s (highly) unlikely that she’ll come.
I don’t think he’ll come.
I doubt that you’ll see them.
I can’t see them finishing today.
4 Impossibility
Present It can’t be true.
Future It couldn’t/can’t ever happen.
Past It couldn’t/can’t possibly have happened.
Note: When used as an exclamation, could and might often express annoyance or criticism.
You could/might have told me!
UNIT 6
Passives: Special points (pp.85-87)
1 make, see, hear, help
These verbs are all followed by the infinitive without to when they are active, and the infinitive with to when they are passive.
They made him stand at the front.
He was made to stand at the front.
2 let
This is never used in the passive.
They usually let him stand at the front.
He is usually allowed to stand at the front.
3 Future with is to
This is often used in the passive for reporting news items. It is fairly formal structure.
New measures to support the homeless are to be introduced (by the government).
It is common in newspaper headlines, where it is usually shortened.
New measures to support homeless to be introduced
4 need doing
This structure has a passive meaning.
The house needs painting. (= The house needs to be painted.)
5 by, with and in
The agent of a passive verb is introduced by by. With or in may be used to introduce the means by which something is done.
The drain was cleared by the workmen.
The drain was blocked with rubbish.
The roads were crowded with people.
Service is included in the price.
Subjunctives (p. 86)
Subjunctive verb forms are not used very often in English. There are two basic forms.
1 The subjunctive of most verbs is the same as the bare infinitive with no 3rd person ‘s’ or past form. In
formal contexts, this form of the subjunctive is used in that-clauses after verbs and adjectives such as the following.
advise demand insist propose recommend require vital urge preferable desirable essential obligatory suggest
It is vital (that) every employee attend the meeting.
I suggest (that) large fines be introduced.
The same structure can also be used after related nouns.
Their suggestion is that the system be reviewed carefully after trialling.
In rather less formal contexts, the subjunctive is avoided and clauses such as the following are used instead.
It is vital (that) every employee should attend the meeting. (should + bare infinitive)
It is vital (that) every employee attends the meeting. (present simple)
This form of the subjunctive is also used in some fixed phrases.
Come what may, we shall achieve our goal.
Suffice it to say that I was disappointed.
Be that as it may, your behaviour was unacceptable.
2 Be has a past subjunctive form were. In conditional clauses and after wish, the past subjunctive form were often used instead of was.
If I were you, I‘d go.
If I were in charge, I would make great changes.
I wish I were rich.
He shouted at her as if she were deaf.
Note: Speakers in informal contexts may use was in these situations.
If I was going, I’d take her.
However, it is best to use the subjunctive form were in Papers 1-4 of the Proficiency exam.
In conditional sentences using inversion, were must always be used – was is not possible.
Were he to refuse permission, we would be in trouble.
Relative clauses (pp. 91-92)
Relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun, e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when. These clauses function as adjectives, and modify a noun which has been given (or sometimes only implied) earlier.
Defining relative clauses
1 We use defining clauses to distinguish one thing or person from similar things or people. If the information in the relative clause is omitted, the sentence will not make sense. The clause is therefore not separated off by commas.
Curitiba is an example of a city which has been successful in avoiding transport problem.
2 They can be introduced by the relative pronouns who (subject), whom (object), whose (possessive), which/that (for things), where (place), when (time).
3 If the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, it can be omitted.
The man (whom) I met yesterday phoned me up.
(See also below – participle clauses/verbless clauses.)
Note: In informal English who may be used as an object as well as subject and that may be used to replace who/whom.
The girls who I saw last night …
It was the same man that had spoken to me earlier.
Non-defining relative clauses
1 Non-defining relative clauses give additional information about the preceding noun. If they are omitted, the sentence will still make sense. They are separated off by commas, which have a similar function in this case to brackets.
The city, which I had visited once before, was huge.
2 They can be introduced by the same relative pronouns as defining relative clauses, except for that, which is not normally used.
My grandparents’ house, which was very old, was surrounded by fruits trees.
3 The relative pronoun cannot be omitted.
Relative clauses with prepositions
If a preposition is required, this may be placed before the relative pronoun in formal English, or at the end of the clause in less formal English.
He’s the man to whom the prize was awarded. (formal)
He’s the man (who) the prize was give to. (informal)
Notes:
1 Whom, not who, must be used after a preposition.
2 When we are referring to a place, if the relative clause includes a preposition, which must be used instead of where. (This is because the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition.)
The area where I lived was very prosperous.
The area (which) I lived in was very prosperous.
Sentence relatives
A non-defining relative clause can refer back to the whole of the previous clause.
I had left my money at home, which meant I had to borrow from my friend.
The following phrases are also used to refer back to a whole clause.
in which case as a result of which by which time at which time/point
since when since which time
Relatives with quantifiers
Quantifiers (e.g. some, a few) can also be used in non-defining relative clauses, with of whom/of which/of whose. Examples of quantifiers which can be used in this way are:
all both some many a few several enough hardly any neither none one/two/three half/one third the majority
a (large/small) proportion a number
This structure can also be used with comparatives and superlatives.
He had two sisters, the younger of whom still lived at home.
Participle and verbless clauses (p.92)
Participle clauses
These can be used to replace relative clauses (both defining and non-defining). They are sometimes known as ‘reduced relatives’.
1 With an –ing form
-ing participle clauses can replace a relative pronoun followed by an active verb.
A new road has been built, which bypasses the town.
A new road has been built, bypassing the town.
2 With and –ed form
If the verb in the relative clause is passive, both the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb can be omitted.
The area (which was) designated for development was near the river.