5 Used to/would

Both of these can describe past habits (often long ago rather than the recent past).

1 used to can describe habitual actions, repeated actions and states.

When I was six or seven, I used to enjoy spending holidays with my grandparents

2 Would is used for habitual or repeated actions (but not for states) when a specific time period is being referred to.

Sunday mornings at the cottage were always the same.

My grandfather would get up early and milk the cows while my grandmother got *breakfast ready.

Note: *As with the past perfect, once the time referred to has been established, it is not necessary to continue using would or used to with every verb.

Linking the past to the present (p. 13)

1 Present perfect simple

1 We use the present perfect simple with since, for or How long….? to describe a state beginning in the past and continuing up to the present.

Ever since he was very young, Lee has enjoyed reading.

How long have you had this car?

2 We also use it for an event or events in a period leading up to the present. The time period may or may not be specified.

He has made a fortune through his writing.

He has just published his 45^th book.

I have lost my keys three times this week.

Since last year, he has attended five training courses.

I’ve never been skiing before – in fact, this is the first time I’ve ever seen snow!

Note: We may introduce a topic with the present perfect, and then switch to the past simple as we add more details of the time and situation.

I’ve taken my driving test six times. The first time I took it was in London.

2 Present perfect continuous

This may be used in the same situations, but may also:

1 convey the idea of continuation or non-completion.

Susie has been writing an essay

2 emphasise the duration of the event.

She’s been working all morning.

Note: In some cases, both simple and continuous forms may be possible, without much change in meaning

Stephen King has lived / has been living in the same small town for many years.

State and event (p. 13)

Simple tenses are normally used for single events, states and habits. Continuous tenses describe activities in progress. They suggest that the activity is temporary, and may not be complete.

1 States

Verbs which describe states are sometimes called stative verbs. They describe activities and situations that may not have a definite beginning or end. They are not generally used in the continuous form (but see below). They include verbs of:

Perception: hear, see, feel, smell, taste, notice

mental states and feelings: love, hate, hope, imagine, remember, forget, understand, want, wish, prefer, seem, appear

relationships and states of being: have, own, possess, belong t, consist of, cost, depend on, require

2 Events

Verbs which describe events are sometimes called dynamic verbs. They describe activities with a definite beginning and end. They may be used in the simple or continuous form. They include verbs describing:

momentary acts: kick, jump, knock

activities: walk, study, work, eat, drive

processes: grow, change, develop, enlarge

Many state verbs can in fact be used in the continuous form in the following situations:

1 to focus on the temporary nature of the action or event. Compare:

You’re very warm-hearted.

You’re being stilly.

2 with a change of meaning.

He appears to be quite a cold person. (=seems)

He’s appearing in a play. (=performing

He doesn’t have a car. (=possess)

We’re having a party! (=holding)

I can see the car headlights. (=they are in sight)

Tamara is seeing Steve quite regularly. (=meeting)

I think it’s a good idea. (=in my opinion)

I’m thinking about it, but I’m not sure. (=considering)

UNIT 2

Conditionals (1) + wishes and preferences (p.2)

Four types of conditionals are practiced in this unit. Other possibilities for conditional sentences are described in Unit 7.

1 Children learn if they are exposed to new ideas.

You have to be prepared to commit yourself if you want a good job.

These sentences are about things which the speaker believes to be generally true. They don’t refer to any particular time. They have:

main clause with a present tense + subordinate (if-) clause with a present tense

Note: It is also possible to have a modal verb in the main clause.

He can/might do it if he’s given the chance.

2 He’ll get the contract if the prices is OK

Here, the speaker thinks the situation in the main clause (he’ll get the contract) is definitely possible.

The sentence has:

Main clause with a future tense + subordinate (if-) clause with a present tense

Other modal verbs or future forms can also be used in the main clause.

He can/might do it if he gets permission.

She’s driving/going to drive there tomorrow if she has time.

Note: In spoken English, the part of the sentence stressed would give further information about the speaker’s view of how likely the event is.

He’ll (quite probably) get the contract if the price is OK.

He’ll (almost certainly) get the contract if the price is OK.

3 I would buy a new car if I got that job.

I would go with you if I were younger.

Depending on the context, the speaker in the first example might regard getting the job as very unlikely, or as impossible. In the second example, the situation in the if-clause is absolutely impossible. To describe hypothetical situations like this in the present or future we use:

Main clause with would plus infinitive + subordinate (if-) clause with a past tense

Notes:

1 You will see other examples of this use of the past tense below.

2 Other modal verbs can also be used in the main clause.

If she entered, she might get the prize.

She could win if she was very lucky.

3 If the verb be is used in the if-clause, it is usually written in the form were for all persons, especially in more formal and/or written contexts (If I were you…). This is an example of the subjunctive form in English. (See also Unit 6.)

4 I would have been very upset if I hadn’t got on the course.

This speaker is describing a hypothetical situation in the past. Neither the situation nor the result actually happened – the speaker did get on the course, and so wasn’t upset. Sentences about hypothetical situations in the past have:

Main clause with would have + past participle + if-clause with past perfect

Note: Other modal verbs can be used instead of would.

He might/could have gone to the USA if he hadn’t got that job.

Wish/if only (p. 28)

1 We use the verb wish to express regret that something is not the case.

I wish (that) I knew his name. (referring to the present)

I wish we weren’t doing the exam tomorrow! (referring to the future)

I wish (that) I’d learned to drive earlier. (referring to the past)

2 Sentences with wish (that) refer to unlikely or hypothetical situations. Tenses used are similar to those in hypothetical conditions.

3 If only can replace I wish, giving the sentence the force of an exclamation.

If the wish is in the past, the tense of the following verb stays the same.

I wished I knew him.

I wished we weren’t doing the exam the next day.

I wish he would do the shopping.

I wish I could do the shopping.

NOT I wish I would do the shopping. X

It is not correct to say I wish I would…. Wish can only be followed by would if the subjects of the two verbs are different. If the subjects are the same, use could instead of would.

Note: Wish + would can only be used to describe an event, not a state.

His parents wish he liked sport. (state)

NOT … wish he would like sport. X

I wish he would go home. (event)

4 wish and hope

We use wish when we would like things to be different from the way they are in reality. We use hope to refer to things we would like to happen.

5 Wish can also be used:

. when giving good wishes for particular events.

I wished him a happy birthday.

. as a formal way of saying want to.

Do you wish to make a complaint?

It’s time, I’d rather, I’d prefer (p.29)

These phrases can be followed by a past tense or an infinitive.