§ 3. The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.

There are two participles in English — Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.

Note. These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present Just as Participle II need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense, but chiefly a difference in voice. In modern grammar textbooks they are also termed '-ing participle' and '-ed participle'.

Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:

(a)If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing: to give — giving, to close — closing.

(b)If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing: to run — running, to forget —forgetting, to admit — admitting.

A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed: to expel — expelling, to travel — travelling.

(c)The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the follow­ing way: dying, lying, tying.

N o t e. A final y is not changed before adding the suffix -ing: to com­ply — complying, to deny — denying.

(For the formation of Participle II see Chapter VII, § 3.)

§ 4. As has already been stated, the participle has a verbal and an adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial modifier.

I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (Du Maurier) (ATTRIBUTE) — Мне был отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше.

And then she turned to the title-page, and looked at the name written in the schoolboy hand. (Ch. ВгоШё) (ATTRIBUTE) — За­тем она открыла книгу на титульном листе и посмотрела на имя, написанное ученическим почерком. Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER) — Поставив машину в гараж, он вспомнил, что не завтракал. When left to herself she spent her time at her writing desk. (Trollope) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER) — Оставшись одна, она провела время за своим письменным столом.

Note. Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and have become adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc., complicated, distinguished, furnished, etc. E. g. an interestingbook, a charming g\x\, the alarming news; a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished apartment.

The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:

1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.

Opening the door, he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)

2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.

Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. (Thackeray) Deeply effected, Priam Farll rose and left the room. (Bennett)

3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the fol­lowing forms:

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	writing	oeing written
Perfect	having written	having been written